I heard a rumour on the 10th of November that a new Pyramid was discovered In "Sakkara" area, on the next day the rumour was confirmed by the Egyptian press & media, the BBC, and yahoo news.Now Egypt has 118 revealed Pyramids and lots more hidden ones, The Egyptian Antiques Chief thought it to belong to the mother of a Pharaoh who ruled more than 4,000 years ago who is said to be Queen Sesheshet, the mother of King Teti, founder of the 6th Dynasty of Egypt's Old Kingdom.

Egypt is the most mysterious place on earth, The taste of Ancient Egyptian Mysticism still lingers in the air, This ancient atmosphere really does give you the feeling that secrets are yet to be revealed. Maybe you could be lucky to reveal some secrets yourself, here's where to find them:
1- Pyramids of Giza & Sphinx
These pyramids of kings Khufu, Kafhre, and Menkaura, are the greatest tombs on earth in means of size and structure, these perfectly shaped structures leave anybody seeing them with the mysterious questions of how they were built.As for the Sphinx, the saying "The riddle of the Sphinx" is full of meaning because archaeologies until this day still argue about its purpose and orgin
2- Abu Simbil
Ramsis II had these two temples built in order to give himself and his wife Nevertari mortality, It is said that these two temples are of the most beautiful in Egypt and the world, What is also extraordinary is that these temples were relocated in order to avoid the floods in the late years of the 20th century.
3- Cairo,
The capital of cultureCairo isn't the place you would want to miss, if you really want to dive in Egyptian culture Cairo is the place to go, full of luxurious bazaars and great restaurants makes it your chance to grab a bite from Egypt.
4- Al Azhar Gardens
As one of the most beautiful parks in the world. Al Azhar Gardens remains a landmark in Cairo, where you can catch a panoramic view of the old city, and it's spectacular minarets.
5- Temples of Karnak
This is where the ancient Egyptians worshipped their gods, This temple holds a monument of almost every single god in the Theban religion.
6- The Nile River
Who would be willing to miss the famous Nile Cruise? Yes that's right, Nobody. It is the reason why all the other wonders are present, the legendary river has been the vein of life in Egypt for thousands of years, and it is said that the Nile river will be the last water source to dry out on earth, what else could be magic?7- Valley of the Kings
The most sacred place of the Pharaohs, this is where the most esteemed kings were buried , present there are many mummies and lots of un-revealed treasures, in fact the most famous mummy was found there "Tutankhamun".
8- The Egyptian Museum
After visiting where the treasures were found, you sure would want to see what was found, if that's the case then the Egyptian Museum is the place to go.
9- Siwa Oasis
If Alexander the great liked this place, Why wouldn't you? Egypt is not all about monuments and Pharaohs, this place is one where you could loosen up a bit and take a swim in the cool waters in the middle of the desert.
10- Hurgada & Sharm El-Sheikh
Two world ranked resorts also well known for the great coral reefs and scuba diving sports, Here you can swim in the spectacular waters of the red sea, or dance your hips of at the famous bars and discos.

Had some friends visiting us from Singapore. While they've done the Nile Cruise and Abu Simbal, and of course, the Pyramids and the Egyptian Museum, they asked me a very pertinent question? Other than the antiquities,
what are the top 10 things to do in Cairo?
Not Egypt but in and around Cairo?
For a moment I was fazed! First thing that comes to your mind when someone mentions Cairo is the pyramids and the museum...that set me thinking....I am writing down what I would def like to do in and around Cairo, in random order...and these are things that I would like to do...
1/ Coffee and Sheesha at El Fishawy
2/ Tannoura at Al Ghouri
3/ Felucca ride
4/ Dinner at the revolving restaurant
5/ A day trip to Fayoum
6/ A trip into the White Dessert
7/ A night out at Darts (Heliopolis) After Eight or Budha Bar
8/ The 11 pm to 4 am show with Dina at Semiramis
9/10/Cannot think of the balance two which does not include the antiquities... needs some thought!Anybody who is reading this and has suggestions, would love to hear your top 10 things to do...I have this nagging feeling that there is something very obvious that I am missing out!

In the Pharaonic times, the temples, royal cemeteries, and royal palaces included workshops where specialized craftsmen worked making furniture, jewelry, glass, metals, and other products. Egyptian tombs show vivid scenes and figures portraying various groups of craftsmen performing their handicrafts, such as carpenters and weavers in workshops. Museums around the world are full of various products made by those ingenious craftsmen. For 4,000 years, Egyptian crafts have generated various types of small arts with different styles and artistic tastes, which were known worldwide. Egyptians were skillful in engraving all kinds of metals with ornamented shapes and adorning them with semiprecious stones and colored glass. They were also proficient in woodworking, creating different kinds of furniture, which were often gold-plated and adorned with precious stones for the royal palaces.Glass vessels of the Pharaonic period were made around a pre-made template. The glass-blowing technique was not used until the Roman era. In the Islamic age, the glass industry and the making of oriels and arabesque, which is the engraving in wood by making complex geometric and artistic shapes, were also popular. Different kinds of transparent and colored glass vessels are still kept, even very small ones were made in great detail with various monuments drawn on them. Weaving was a popular art that flourished notably in the Coptic culture and continued in the Islamic age as high-class Islamic carpets became widespread.The multitude of craftsmen with their innovative techniques allowed for their artistic experience to be passed from one generation to another. They were divided into groups; each group had an elected Head, who managed its affairs and settled any disputes among its members. Egypt's districts had specified areas for craftsmen, goldsmiths, and coppersmiths. It is probable that the Egyptian artist was educated and trained by his father at an early age. The young child helped the workgroup in which his father worked to learn the rules of the craft. That was the case in Egypt until the Islamic age. However, in the Ottoman age, Egypt lost most of its craftsmen and artisans, as the skillful artisans were forced to move to Istanbul, capital of the Ottoman Empire. Subsequently, Egypt witnessed a period of stagnation in art that lasted until the beginning of the modern times.

The humanities are the branches of learning that investigate human constructs and concerns, rather than natural processes or social relationships. The humanities include philosophy, language, literature, art, and history. From earliest times, the Egyptians produced great cultural achievements, which they strove to refine and pass down to successive generations.During the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians developed the artistic styles and motifs that they would continue to use for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians recorded their daily activities and religious beliefs in texts and scenes on the walls of temples and tombs. Education was important to the ancient Egyptians; they taught children reading, writing, literature, and mathematics. Old Kingdom literature tended to be in a format called "wisdom literature," which taught a proper code of conduct. By the Middle Kingdom, scribes were recruited to write literary works in praise of the pharaoh. "The Story of Sinuhe," an adventurous tale of an official who flees Egypt after the murder of his king, was studied by children centuries later. Poems and songs have been found dating from the New Kingdom, even a text called "A Literary Controversy," in which one scholar promotes his own knowledge and criticizes the learning of a rival. The Greco-Roman era, especially under the early generations of Ptolemaic leadership, saw a flowering of the arts and humanities in Alexandria. Poets, philosophers, and other great scholars traveled to the great Library of Alexandria where they could consult a multitude of texts and debate their theories. Scholars were invited to live and carry out their work in the nearby Museum. The education of children, including girls, continued to be important for the upper classes.Under the Coptics, particularly after the rule of Constantine, writing became an effective way to spread the new religion and educate the converts. As monasteries specialized in the production of books, the art of illumination, beautiful and detailed colored illustrations of Biblical scenes and saints, reached a high point. Free from the persecution they faced under the Romans, Christian scholars were able to meet and debate philosophical and theological ideas.Education, literature, and intellectual activity continued to be highly valued under the Muslims, especially during the Fatimid and Ayyubid eras. Students were educated in madrassas, schools associated with a mosque, some of which achieved world renown. Sultans and princes vied for the honor of hosting scholarly gatherings in their homes. Calligraphy, a beautiful and stylized manner of writing Arabic, became an important artistic achievement as writers strove for the script to be worthy of expressing Allah's message to Mohammed. In addition to beautiful copies of the Qur'an, extensive encyclopedias in a variety of subjects from medicine, geography, history, and social customs were produced in the Islamic era. The Muslim's interest in a variety of topics led them to translate many earlier Greek and Latin texts into Arabic.

Statues were among the most important features of Egyptian arts. A statue had an essential function in the tomb throughout Pharaonic times, which was to enable the spirit to identify the features of the deceased person so that it could find him in the hereafter. Throughout the Old, Intermediate, and New Kingdoms, the art of sculpture flourished and produced a number of statues of different types. Egyptians used the size of their sculptures to show the social order. The pharaoh was larger than life-size, sometimes weighing hundreds of tons. Scribes and court officials were life-size, and servants and peasants, although made with high precision, were small, usually less than 50 centimeters. These statues exhibited the servant in various attitudes of working. Also, the shawabti statues, a few centimeters high, were like servants that are called by the master in the hereafter to perform the tasks he needs. There were 365 such shawabti statues, representing the days of the year.A basic feature of Egyptian sculpture was the Pharaonic Needles, made through utilizing high architectural technology, as the needle was cut from a single stone block. Needles were among the most prominent elements of ancient architecture, usually located on both sides of entrances to temples. Columns had a special status in Egyptian temples in the Pharaonic and Greek eras. A column consists of three parts: the base, body, and crown. Columns were either square or rounded. Crowns took different shapes similar to flowers and plants, such as the palm tree and the lotus plant. A common shape was that of a woven basket with an ornamental plant shape or grape vines inside.In the Greco-Roman era, Romans discovered many types of marble in the Red Sea mountains, which they used extensively in sculpture and construction. Movement and dress folds became evident in sculptural style. Several statues, particularly of kings and gods, have been found apart from their heads. A special type of sculpture emerged during that era, known as terracotta, which are small statues made of pottery with heights ranging between 5 and 20 centimeters. Large numbers of statues were found representing animals, such as a vulture, cat, hippopotamus, monkey, bull, lion, and dog, as well as human figures.The Coptic culture only focused on two particular types of sculpture. The first type is the tombstone, which is a plate of limestone whose upper part is often shaped like a triangle with drawings. The tombstone bears the portrait of the deceased and date of death. The second type of sculpture is the cornice, which is a carved decorative element above or below walls and used for decoration of churches and abbeys. They usually had plant or animal ornamentations and in special cases, human figures. Since the sixth century AD, the cross appeared in the middle.Sculpture played a small role in Islamic culture, since Islam rejected all aspects of the previous pagan religions. Therefore, only a few statues from that time period were found; these were not carved, but made out of templates. Most of these small statues were of small animals, such as a rabbit or gazelle.

The art of drawing and relief inscription flourished in ancient Egypt, as evidenced on the walls of temples and tombs. The artist dealt with the wall as a painting surface and tried to utilize all available spaces. This was not the work of a single artist, since the ancient Egyptian painting work was generally done in three stages. Various categories of artists participated, each with his own area of expertise. In the first stage, the basic primary lines that shape the features of the figure were drawn. In the second phase, coloring was done, starting with the wider areas and progressing to the details of the painting. Then the final phase was drawing fine lines and showing details.We can generally say that there were no distinctions between drawing, painting, and inscription. Even if we can differentiate inscriptions into two types, namely carving and engraving, either one of these two methods had to be preceded by drawing to make the original design of the figure and determine its basic lines. The coloring method used colored pastes to fill in the spaces in the drawing. The Egyptian artist often used color-fixing materials to prolong the life of colors.Because art was related to religious architecture, the artist took interest in portraying gods, glorifying them through presenting various types of offerings and recording prayers and recitations. At the same time, he portrayed different aspects of daily life that the deceased person may enjoy in his tomb and carry with him to the hereafter. Such scenes were not specific events or special moments of significance to the deceased, but were general scenes representing activities such as agriculture, hunting, herding, playing, or quarreling. In portraying people, the artist adopted the law of ratios, which remained in use until the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. The artist divided the surface into equal squares on which he drew the general lines of the human body. According to certain ratios between the body parts, he filled in the squares until his work was completed. It was found that portraying the profile view was an ideal way to present all parts of the body. However, profiling was not a fixed rule. The need to show all details often necessitated the portrayal of the front view. In some cases, the artist combined both methods, for example, by drawing the head in profile, the shoulders in front view, and the lower part in a side view. In the Greco-Roman era, the link between these arts and religion continued. One of the most important features of Hellenistic art was the inscription of religious and mythical subjects on coffins. In addition, portrayal of human faces, similar to current portrait art, was one of the most significant additions in common use in that era. Also in use were the masks of mummies and colored funeral masks, which are portraits of the deceased person. These were placed directly on the face of the deceased, representing the actual features of that person, so that the spirit could identify the body. In many cases, coffins were made in the form of the deceased person.In the third century AD, an icon representing the person was hung in his house until his death, when it was then fixed to his coffin. Such icons disappeared after the fourth century AD, but appeared again in the sixth century. The beginning of Coptic portrait art can be traced back to the second century AD, starting in the tombs of early Christians. At first, the portrayed subjects were not directly related to the new religion, but Bible stories and symbolic themes gradually appeared until Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary were clearly and directly portrayed.Portraits can be divided into three types, according to the method adopted. The tempera method, which was utilized since the Pharaonic era, used sticky materials such as glue or egg white to provide colors with thickness. The encaustic method is a Greek method introduced to Egypt in the Greco-Roman era and it spread to Greek cities such as Alexandria, Faiyum, and Shaikh Ebada. It was based on mixing colors with wax and in some cases, a small amount of oil was added, which gave the drawing a glossy appearance to look like oil paintings. This method remained in use until the eleventh century. The third method is the fresco, utilizing water colors. It is a simple method based on mixing colors directly with water without any other medium. The colors are applied to the wall before it dries, so that both would dry together. This method appeared in the Christian era, although it did not last for long. Oil painting as we know today, which is a cheaper and easier method, did not appear until the Byzantine era.

Egypt has provided humanity with a rich treasure of various types of architecture. It is among the most creative of the world's countries in this art, both in quality and quantity. Architectural works in ancient Egyptian civilization can generally be divided into two types according to the materials used for construction. The first type is the un-burnt bricks, which were used for building Egyptian houses throughout the Pharaonic, Hellenistic, Coptic, and Islamic civilizations, extending even to modern times in Egyptian villages. The second type is stone architecture. Egypt had a large wealth of stones that included basalt, limestone, alabaster, granite, and others. Quarrying for these stones was supervised by the government, because the work required organized missions to live close to quarry locations until the required work was completed. Then the workers would return with their product required for construction. Many tools that were used for quarrying and building include hammers, axes, balances, measures, angles, half-circles, mason's levels, building triangles, and tools for leveling walls.Since the Pharaonic era, architectural design was essential before any construction work began. Several examples of architectural designs were found on pieces of pottery or stone. As a result of continuous construction activities through the ages, Egypt had specialized craftsmen skilled in construction work and its complex techniques. Construction crafts were passed from one generation to the next. Through the ages, these generations have provided the world with varied and unique forms of architecture; the most significant of which were state-sponsored projects, such as royal tombs. Attention to royal tombs started in the early times of Egyptian civilization, especially since it was endowed with a unique architecture in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, namely the Egyptian Pyramids of which there are about 110. In addition to tombs, places of worship had special attention in Egypt, for which the state devoted the best materials, architects, and artists. The land of Egypt still has Pharaonic and Greek temples, as well as historical churches and mosques.Along with religious and funeral architecture, there was military architecture, represented by fortresses and towers, of which we have examples from the Middle Kingdom through the Islamic era. There was also architecture for multiple civil purposes, which flourished in the Greek era. A prominent example was the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the third among the Great Wonders of the Ancient World, built during the rule of Ptolemy the First, but completed during the rule of Ptolemy the Second. It was 150 meters high and was used to guide ships day and night until the fifteenth century AD. Another example is the Roman Amphitheater, located in Kom El-Dekka area of Alexandria, which was discovered by a Polish mission in the early sixties of the twentieth century.Attention was given to architecture of various purposes in the Islamic era, represented by the construction of mosques, schools, fortresses, castles, palaces, and houses. In the Ayyubites era, military architecture flourished, with the construction of fortresses such as the Citadel of Salah Al-Din and the Fort of Al-Muzaffar. A new type of architecture also received attention, namely buildings for charity, such as houses for the poor and public water fountains. This type flourished in the Mamluk era, which witnessed construction of several houses, palaces, hotels, agencies, and schools, in addition to public water fountains. There is no doubt that Islamic Cairo remained a glittering architectural city until the end of the Ottoman period. It was surrounded by walls with openings for control of access, such as the gates of the city, of which only Bab El-Nasr, Bab El-Fotouh, and Bab-Zowaila still remain.

Based on the small groupings of papyri that have been found in burials, Ancient Egyptians are believed to have collected texts as part of elite possessions. Inscriptions and manuscripts also contain numerous references to groups of books as the "House of Books." There are no architectural remains for any large ancient Egyptian libraries, but they most likely would have been in the palaces and principal temples. At the Temple of Edfu, a chamber is inscribed with a catalog of books, but due to its size and location, it was probably used to house books regularly used for temple rituals.During the Ptolemaic period, Ptolemy the First Soter ordered the establishment of what became the Library of Alexandria. Demetrius of Phalerum put together the central collection for the library and Ptolemy the Second Philadelphius sponsored the completion of the work. Later kings were eager to increase the collection. Ptolemy the Third, for example, required all incoming travelers to hand in any books. If they were not already part of the library, the books would be kept while the owners received cheap copies. At its peak, the Library probably held around 700,000 scrolls, equivalent to 100-125,000 printed bound books. By the mid-third century BC, the original building became too small and about 42,800 copies and incomplete manuscripts were moved to the Serapeum. Nearly 40,000 books in the Library of Alexandria were burned in fires resulting from the conflicts between Caesar and Cleopatra the Seventh in 48 BC. Although Antony compensated the queen with 200,000 scrolls from Pergamum, the Library of Alexandria was destroyed sometime by the end of the third century BC during the power struggles of the Roman Empire. The Serapeum, or "Daughter Library," was judged to support pagan doctrine and destroyed by Theophilus, the Bishop of Alexandria, based on a decree by Theodosius in 391 AD that forbade all non-Christian religions.The Christian population in Egypt had access to the civic libraries established during the Ptolemaic and Roman times and church libraries, often located in monasteries. The library in the White Monastery of Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite at Sohag might have been the greatest in Coptic Egypt, but it is now scattered. Hundreds of parchment and papyrus fragments have been found at the site of the monastery of Saint Apollo, which also might have housed a library.The Muslims were great book collectors and libraries flourished under Islam, which promoted institutions of learning. In Egypt, and especially Cairo, large schools and mosques held libraries that were accessible to scholars in addition to the private libraries maintained by princes, nobles, and merchants. Each library had a catalog of its collection and employees who performed the job of the present-day librarian, in addition to scribes, book binders, and book handlers. In AH 395 (AD 1004), the Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim established an institute of learning called the Dar al-ilm, or House of Knowledge. He donated books on a wide range of subjects, encouraged scholars to teach there, and funded a support staff and furnishings. By the eleventh century, this research foundation was said to have held over one million volumes. In a fate similar to the Library of Alexandria, it was destroyed during the period of instability brought on by the invasions of the Crusaders and Mongols.

The luxurious InterContinental Citystars Cairo is situated adjacent to Cairos largest retail and leisure complex, Citystars Heliopolis, and is the ideal starting point for tours, sightseeing and enjoying the vibrant life of Cairo. The hotel is only seven minutes from Cairo International Airport and just five minutes from the Cairo International Conference Centre. Guests are assured of a comfortable and relaxing stay in the 790 guest rooms, which include suites, Garden Wing Poolside rooms and 15 bedroom residence suites. Club InterContinental accommodation offers upgraded facilities and amenities. A choice of dining options includes a Japanese Teppanyaki restaurant, Mediterranean fine dining, Lebanese Restaurant, coffe shop, cocktail lounge, fish market-style restaurant (Opening Soon) and various entertainment venues, together with 24 hour Room Service. The hotel offers 19 versatile function rooms including Al Saraya, the largest banquet hall in Cairo, with a maximum capacity of 2200 persons in a reception setting. A variety of recreational facilities for all age groups includes the 3000 square metre Lifestyle Aqua Spa and Wellness Center, squash and tennis courts(All Opening Soon), a large outdoor swimming pool and children's pool and a 24-hour casino. There is access to 550 shops Citystars, an exhibition centre, 16 cinemas and a family entertainment centre. Concierge services and ample parking are available.
Intercontinental Citystars Cairo Features
Family Rooms
Luxury
Spa
Meeting rooms
Kitchenette
Dry cleaning/laundry
Non-smoking rooms
Restaurant
Business center
Wheelchair accessible
Swimming pool
Data port
Game room
Fitness Center
Intercontinental Citystars Cairo Property Information:
Rooms: 774
Floors: 14

Built around a 19th-century palace on an island in the Nile River, the Marriott Cairo Hotel and Omar Khayyam Casino is approximately one mile from Cairo Tower and 15 miles from Cairo International Airport. This hotel is also half a mile from the Opera House, two miles from Cairo Zoo and the Egyptian Museum, three miles from Khan el Khalili Bazaar and the Coptic Museum, four miles from the American Embassy and Cairo Synagogue, five miles from Old Cairo, and eight miles from the Sphinx and Pyramids. The hotel is surrounded by the sights and sounds that makes Cairo the most popular destination in the Middle East for both business and leisure travellers and is a perfect base for exploring historic Cairo. The hotel amenities include the full health club and spa, outdoor swimming pool, Jacuzzi, sauna, sports court, and 24-hour casino. For dining and refreshments, the hotel houses Egyptian Nights (pan-Arabian cuisine), Garden Promenade Cafe (barbecue), Harrys Pub, JWs Steakhouse, Omars Cafe, Piano Bar, Ristorante Tuscany, Roys Country Kitchen (24-hour buffets), Saraya Cafe, Marriott Bakery, Torii (Japanese cuisine), and Waves Snack Bar. The hotel also offers room service, valet laundry service, porter service, a concierge, currency exchange, babysitting, and parking for a fee. All rooms feature high-speed Internet access, voicemail, free local calls, air-conditioning, alarm clocks, coffeemakers, refrigerators, irons and ironing boards, hairdryers, bathroom amenities, free weekday newspapers, cable TV, and movies.
Marriott Cairo Hotel and Casino Features
Family Rooms
Luxury
Fitness Center
Spa
Dry cleaning/laundry
Smoke-free
Kitchenette
Data port
Non-smoking rooms
Meeting rooms
Restaurant
Business center
Wheelchair accessible
Swimming pool
Game room
Marriott Cairo Hotel and Casino Property Information:
Rooms: 1089
Floors: 20

A gracious sanctuary on the west bank of the Nile, with impressive views of the Great Pyramids over the old-growth canopy of Cairo's ancient Zoological and Botanical Gardens, the Hotel is at the centre of the prestigious new First Residence apartments and shops.
Four Seasons Hotel Cairo At the First Residence Features
Pets accepted
Meeting rooms
Spa
Non-smoking rooms
Restaurant
Business center
Fitness Center
Wheelchair accessible
Swimming pool
Family Rooms
Four Seasons Hotel Cairo At the First Residence Property Information:
Rooms: 269
Floors: 20

For ancient Egyptians, appearance was an important issue. Appearance indicated a persons status, role in a society or political significance. Egyptian hairstyles and our hairstyles today have many things in common. Like modern hairstyles Egyptian hairstyles varied with age, gender and social status.
Children had unique hairstyles in ancient Egypt. Their hair was shaved off or cut short except for a long lock of hair left on the side of the head, the so-called side-lock of youth. This s-shaped lock was depicted by the hieroglyphic symbol of a child or youth. Both girls and boys wore this style until the onset of puberty. Young boys often shaved their heads, while young girls wore their hair in plaits or sometimes did up their hair in a ponytail style, hanging down the center of the back. Young girl dancers used to wear long thick braided ponytails. The edge of the tail was either naturally curled or was enhanced to do so. If the ponytail was not curled at the end, it was weighted down by adornments or metal discs.
Egyptian men typically wore their hair short, leaving their ears visible. Men often kept these hairstyles until their hair began to thin with advancing age. Another hairstyle for men was distinctive short curls covering the ears shaping a bend from temple to nape. It is doubtful that this hairstyle was natural. It was more likely a result of a process of hair curling that was done occasionally.
Women's hairstyles were more unique than those of men. Women generally preferred a smooth, close coiffure, a natural wave and long curl. Women in the Old Kingdom preferred to have short cuts or chin length bobs. However, women in the New Kingdom wore their hair long or touted a wig. Women tied and decorated their hair with flowers and linen ribbons. A stylized lotus blossom was the preferred adornment for the head. This developed into using coronets and diadems. Diadems made of gold, turquoise, garnet, and malachite beads were discovered on an ancient Egyptian body dating to 3200 BC. Poorer people used more simple and inexpensive ornaments of petals and berries to hold their hair at the back. Children decorated their hair with amulets of small fish, presumably to protect from the dangers of the Nile. Children sometimes used hair-rings or clasps. Egyptians wore headbands around their heads or held their hair in place with ivory and metal hairpins. Beads might be used to attach wigs or hair extensions in place.
Egyptians threaded gold tubes on each tress, or strung inlaid gold rosettes between vertical ribs of small beads to form full head covers. The also used combs, tweezers, shavers and hair curlers. Combs were either single or double sided combs and made from wood or bone. Some of them were very finely made with a long grip. Combs were found from early tomb goods, even from predynastic times. Egyptians shaved with a stone blade at first, later with a copper, and during the Middle Kingdom with a bronze razor.
Slaves and servants were not able to dress the same as Egyptian nobility. The way that they adorned their hair was quite different. Commonly, they tied their hair at the back of the head into a kind of loop. Another type of hairstyle was to tie it in eight or nine long plaits at the back of the head and to dangled them together at one side of the neck and face.
In ancient Egypt, men and women used to shave their heads bald replacing their natural hair with wigs. Egyptian women did not walk around showing their bald heads, they always wore the wigs. Head shaving had a number of benefits. First, removing their hair made it much more comfortable in the hot Egyptian climate. Second, it was easy to maintain a high degree of cleanliness avoiding danger of lice infestation. In addition, people wore wigs when their natural hair was gone due to old age. However, even though the Egyptians shaved their heads, they did not think the bald look was preferable to having hair.
Priests were required to keep their entire bodies cleanly shaved. They shaved every third day because they needed to avoid the danger of lice or any other uncleanness to conduct rituals. This is the reason why priests are illustrated bald-headed with no eyebrows or lashes.
There is evidence of influence from other cultures on Egyptian hairstyles. One example is the cultural union of the Roman Empire and the Egyptian empire. There is evidence of a female mummy wearing a typically Roman hairstyle yet the iconography on her death mask was plainly Egyptian. At Tell el-Daba in Egypt, there was a statue portrayed wearing a mushroom hairstyle that was typical of Asiatic males. There is a statue of young woman in the Ptolemaic periods exhibiting a typical Nubian hairstyle consisting of five small clumps of hair.
Wigs were very popular and worn by men, women and children. They were adorned both inside and outside of the house. Egyptians put on a new wig each day and wigs were greatly varied in styles. The primary function of the wig was as a headdress for special occasions, such as ceremonies and banquets.
Wigs were curled or sometimes made with a succession of plaits. Only queens or noble ladies could wear wigs of long hair separated into three parts, the so-called goddress. However, they were worn by commoners in later times. During the Old and Middle Kingdom, there were basically two kinds of wig styles; wigs made of short or long hair. The former was made of small curls arranged in horizontal lines lapping over each other resembling roof tiles. The forehead was partially visible and the ears and back of the neck were fully covered. Those small curls were either triangular or square. The hair could be cut straight across the forehead or cut rounded.
On the contrary, the hair from a long-haired wig hung down heavily from the top of the head to the shoulders forming a frame for the face. The hair was slightly waved and occasionally tresses were twisted into spirals. In the New Kingdom, people preferred wigs with several long tassel-ended tails, while shorter and simpler wigs became popular in the Amarna period.
Wigs were very expensive. People who could not afford to buy wigs had to use the cheaper hair extensions. Hair extensions were often preferred because they could be tied up in the back. Egyptians considered thicker hair as ideal, so hair extensions were also attached to the wigs to enhance ones appearance.
Wigs were meticulously cared for using emollients and oils made from vegetables or animal fats. Those wigs that were properly cared for lasted longer than those without proper care. Although Egyptians preferred to wear wigs and took care of them, they also did take care of their natural hair. Washing their hair regularly was a routine for Egyptians. However, it is not known how frequently Egyptians washed their hair. Wigs were scented with petals or piece of wood chips such as cinnamon. When wigs were not used, they were kept in special boxes on a stand or in special chests. When it was needed, it could be worn without tiresome combing. Wig boxes were found in tombs and the remnants of ancient wig factories have been located. Since it is believed that wigs were also needed for the afterlife, the dead were buried in the tombs with their wigs.
Wigs were usually made from human hair, sheep's wool or vegetable fibers. The more it looked like real hair, the more expensive it was and the more it was sought after. Wigs of high quality were made only from human hair, while wigs for the middle class were made with a mix of human hair and vegetable fibers. The cheapest wigs were made fully from vegetable fibers. Both wig making specialists and barbers made the wigs and wig making was considered to be a respectable profession. It was one of the jobs available to women. People cut or shaved their hair by themselves or went to the barbers. A barbershop scene is depicted in the tomb of Userhet at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, where young men are forming a waiting line, sitting on the folding chairs and tripods while the barber is working.
Egyptians used a material called henna (used for nails and lips, too) to dye their hair red. Scientific studies show that people used henna to conceal their gray hair from as early as 3400 BC. Henna is still used today. There is a body of evidence from paintings that depict the existence of people with red hair, such as the 18th Dynasty Hunutmehet. She had distinctive red hair mentioned by Grafton Smith.
Like today, ancient Egyptians were also facing the same problem of hair loss, and they wanted to maintain their youthful appearance as long as possible. There were many kinds of suggested remedies targeting primarily men. In 1150 BC, Egyptian men applied fats from ibex, lions, crocodiles, serpents, geese, and hippopotami to their scalps. The fat of cats and goats was also recommended. Chopped lettuce patches were used to smear the bald spots to encourage hair growth.
Ancient Egyptians also made use of something similar to modern aromatherapy. Fir oil, rosemary oil, (sweet) almond oil and castor oil were often used to stimulate hair growth. The seeds of fenugreek, that plant herbalists and pharmacologists still use today, was another remedy.
Bibliography
Strouhal, Eugen. Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
Wilkinson, John Gardner, Sir. A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians. New York: Crescent Books, 1988.http://www.plainfield.k12.in.us/challeng/4th/bsfaegy.htm October 19, 2000.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CLOTHING. Dragonstrike Systems Ancient Egyptian Fashion Unity Point School. (1999).
http://www.up140.jacksn.k12.il.us/Egypt99/Wiggs/michelle.htm October 19, 2000. Ancient Egyptian Thematic. Dakota State University Course Material.
http://courses.dsu.edu/ed370/Crispage.htm October 19, 2000. Beauty Secrets of the Ancient Egyptians (Volume I, Number 1). Tour Egypt. (June 1, 2000).
http://egyptmonth.com/mag06012000/index.htm October 19, 2000.http://touregypt.net/mag07012000/mag4.htm October 19, 2000.). Tour Egypt. (July 1, 2000).
http://community-1.webtv.net/Xoxana/DirectEvidenceof/ Direct Evidence of Fair Hair and Blue Eyes Xuxa Thorson. October 19, 2000.
http://www.seattleartmuseum.org/exhibitions/egypt/discover/hairstyle.htm Discover Egypt. Seattle Art Museum.October 19, 2000.
Joseph -ChristianAnswers.Net. Christian Answers Network. (1996) Mummies The University of Texas. (December 13, 1999) October 19, 2000.
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/clubmed/mummies.html October 19, 2000. Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum - Hairpin, Comb, and Hair Extensions. Rosicrucian Order, AMORC. (September 13, 1999)
http://www.rosicrucian.org/mus-plan/museum/woncatalog/wighair.html October 19, 2000.
http://pages.ancientsites.com/~Nesnut Hatshepsut/QQ/QQ8/qq.jewelery.html October 19, 2000.
The Social Dimension of Hair Loss. Internet health Library. (1996) They Walked in Beauty -Rotunda Royal Ontario Museum. (1999) 19, 2000.
http://romlx6.rom.on.ca/rotunda/beauty.html October 19, 2000.Picture of a woman wearing headband and wig
http://www.touregypt.net/mag07012000/mag4.htm
http://www.rosicrucian.org/mus-plan/museum/woncatalog/wighair.htm
By Kozue Takahashi

Ancient Egypt had games of all kinds, some for fun and entertainment and the others for fitness. Samples of these games have been found in drawings located in the tombs at Saqqara, plus many others. These pyramids were built nearly 2600b.c.e. and believe it or not we still play some of these games to this day. As well as pictures, board games have also been found in tombs from the same time period. Many of the fitness type games depicted in paintings are of common games such as hockey, which used long palm tree branches for sticks and a puck made from stuffed papyrus in between two pieces of leather. There are also pictures of various types of games that use handballs.
Various types of board games have been discovered such as Dogs and Jackals, Senet or Seega, and others such as 20-squares a similar type of game called 30 and 50 squares. Dogs and Jackals games and pieces have been found in tomb of Reny-Seneb. It’s board was made of wood, ebony and ivory and shaped like a piece of furniture and roughly measuring 15x10cm. It had 4 animal carved legs and the board was made of ivory with a palm tree carved into it with fifty five holes. There were drawers that held the ebony pawns that looked like a jackal and a dog’s head on a stick. Three coins were used to determine movements of the pieces on the board and the first person with all pieces at the end won the game.
Senet is another board game that has been found. One of these games was found in the tomb of Hesy along with painting of it and how to play. The rules of this game were very complex. It consisted of a board with 30 holes, 3 rows and 10 columns. Most of the games used 7 pawns, sticks or knucklebones for each of the two players but some only had 5. During the New Kingdom, the game of Senet had acquired a religious and magical meaning which symbolized the passage of the deceased through the netherworld with his resurrection dependant upon his/her ability to win the game. Since boards games of all quality have been discovered it is needless to say that the games were played by all classes of people in Ancient Egypt.
Bibliography
The Game of Senent, and, Dogs and Jackals by Catherine Soubeyrand www.gamecabinet.com
Ancient Egyptian Sportswww.sis.gov.eg/egyptinf/history/html/sport001.htm
Games of Egyptwww.ipl.org/youth/cquest/middle-east/eggames.html
Shareware computer games of Senet and Hounds & Jackals can be found at www.zdnet.com/downloads
by Casey Boone

In ancient Egypt there were no known words for midwife, obstetrician, or gynecologist. But because ancient Egyptians did not have words for these things does not mean that they did not exist. In Ancient Egypt the midwife came in many forms. For peasants the midwife was a friend, neighbor, and/or family member who helped deliver the baby. For noblewomen and wealthier classes the midwife was usually a maidservant or nurse who already lived in the household. Midwives at this time did not have formal training to learn their trade. Instead they learned by apprenticeships where the knowledge was passed down from family member to family member or from friend to friend. The work of the midwife included providing emotional support, encouragement, medical care, and religious help and protection to women during their lives. The areas that midwives focused on were pregnancy, labor, fertility, and contraception.
Most ancient Egyptian women labored and delivered their babies on the ?cool roof of the house or in an arbor or confinement pavilion, which was a structure of papyrus-stalk columns decorated with vines? (Parsons p. 2). In Ptolemaic times, women from the noble class gave birth in birth houses that were attached to temples. The positions that these women took when they delivered their babies were standing, kneeling, squatting, or sitting on their heels on birthing bricks, or sitting on a birthing chair. The midwife would then be positioned in front of the mother to help the delivery and catch the baby. Two other women or midwives would be placed on either side of the mother to hold her hands and arms while she was pushing and to give encouragement. Sometimes the midwife would place a dish of hot water under the birthing chair so that steam could help ease delivery. The birthing bricks that ancient Egyptian women used were 14 by 7 inches long and decorated with colorful painted scenes and figures of the birth process. Birthing chairs were made of brick and had a hole in the center. They were decorated with hieroglyphic inscriptions of the owner and painted scenes of the mother, baby, and goddesses.
Since birth and delivery could be dangerous for both the mother and child, ancient Egyptian midwives used many goddesses and gods for help and protection. Goddesses and gods which ancient Egyptian midwives and women thought would help during pregnancy and birth were Hathor, Bes, Taweret, Meskhenet, Khnum, Thoth, and Amun. Hathor was the guardian-goddess of women and domestic bliss and watched over women giving birth. She took the shape of a cow. Bes was a dwarf-goddess who vanquished any evil things hovering around the mother and baby. Taweret was the pregnant hippopotamus-goddess and the chief deity of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding. She carried a magic knife or the knot of Isis. Meskhenet was depicted in the shape of a birthing brick with a human head and gave strength and support to the laboring mother. Khnum was the creator-god who gave health to newborn babies after birth. The god Thoth helped the delivery along and the god Amun helped sooth severe labor pains by blowing in a cool northern breeze (Parsons, p. 3). Statues and pictures of these goddesses and gods were placed throughout room and painted on the walls, birthing bricks and chairs that the laboring women used. Another way that midwives called on divine help and protection during labor was to ?place a magic ivory crescent-shaped wand, decorated with carvings of deities, snakes, lions, and crocodiles, on the stomach of the women giving birth? (Parsons, p. 3).
On the Ebers, Kahun, Berlin, and Carlsberg papyri there are many tests and methods described for fertility, pregnancy, and contraception that ancient Egyptian midwives and women used.
Birth Control:
-Silphium, honey, and natron used for their contraceptive properties.
-Soak cotton in a paste of dates and acacia bark and insert into vagina.
-Acacia, carob, dates, all to be ground with honey and placed in the vagina.
Fertility Treatment:
-A woman should squat over a hot mixture of frankincense, oil, dates, and beer and allow the vapors to enter her.
Pregnancy Tests:
-Emmer and barley seeds, the lady should moisten with her urine every day, like dates, and like sand in two bags. If they all grow, she will bear a child. If the barley grows it will be a male, if the emmer grows it will be a female, if neither grow she will not bear a child.
-Examine the blood vessels over the breasts. Smear the breasts, arms, and shoulders with new oil. Early in the morning if her blood vessels look fresh and good, bearing children will occur. If the vessels are green and dark, she will bear children late.
-Give a women milk from one who had already borne a male child mixed with melon puree. If it made the women sick she was pregnant.
Induce Delivery:
-Place on the woman's abdomen a plaster of sea salt, emmer wheat, and rushes from the Nile River.
Contracting the Uterus:
-Mix the kheper-wer plant, honey, water of carob, and milk. Strain and place in the vagina.
Spells to Assist the Birth Process:
?Come down, placenta, come down! I am Horus who conjures in order that she who is giving birth becomes better than she was, as if she was already delivered...Look, Hathor will lay her hand on her with an amulet of health! I am Horus who saves her!? Repeat four times over a Bes-amulet, placed on the brow of the woman in labor.
?Make the heart of the deliverer strong, and keep alive the one that is coming.?
References:
?Archaeologists uncover 3700-year-old `magical' birth brick in Egypt.? Eurekalert http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2002-07/uop-au3072502.php 30 Nov. 2002.
Parsons, Marie. ?Childbirth and Children in Ancient Egypt.? Tour Egypt http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/mothers.htm 30 Nov. 2002.
?Ancient childbirth seat found in Egypt.? Blueyonder http://www.ancienthistory.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/enter/news/272.htmlhttp 04 Nov. 2002.
?Women's Health and Obstetrics in Ancient Egypt.? Geocities http://www.geocities.com/honda841/Egypt.html 04 Nov. 2002.
?Health?Egyptian Approach to Illness, Pregnancy and Childbirth.? Members http://members.rogers.com/jasthompson/healthinegypt.htm 04 Nov. 2002.
?Ancient Egypt: Medicine-Pregnancy and childbirth.? Reshafim http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad.egypt/timelines.topics/medicine.htm
For an image of Cleopatra giving birth go to http://www.geocities.com/honda841/Egypt.html

Written by Alison Thiele, 2002

The Egyptians believed that disease and death were caused by a god, a spirit, or some other supernatural force. They had shaman-physicians, who would discover the particular entity causing the disease and then drive it out with magic rituals or talismans, as well as medicines. The duties of Egyptian physicians included creating medications, providing magic spells and prayers to provide healing, mending broken bones, dentistry, embalming, surgery, and autopsy. Physicians were often very specialized. ?From the tombstone of Iry, chief physician to a pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, we learn that he was also "palace eye physician" and "palace stomach bowel physician" and bore the titles "one understanding the internal fluids" and "guardian of the anus." (Ead)
A common diseases among the Egyptians was the parasitic disease Schistosomiasis, an infection by the larval worm of a snail. Humans are infected when they come into contact with the free swimming worm, which is released by the snail into water. The worm burrows into the skin and enters the veins of the human host and causes anemia, loss of appetite, urinary infection, and loss of resistance to other diseases.
The commoners also suffered from the injuries and deformities caused by hard labor. They suffered from insect born diseases such as malaria and trachoma, an eye disease, small pox, measles, tuberculosis, and cholera. It is believed that there were occasional outbreaks of the bubonic plague spread along trade routes from the east. They contracted diseases such as trichinae, parasitic worms, and tuberculosis from their livestock. Leprosy, which had originated in Egypt, was relatively rare, possibly because of the immunity that tuberculosis sufferers have. Silicosis of the lungs, caused by breathing in sand particles was a common cause of pneumonia for the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians also suffered from diet-related ailments such as malnutrition, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, dental abrasion, and ailments normal to all humans such as arthritis.
A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Egyptian medicine comes from the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus and the Kahun Papyrus. The Edwin Smith Papyrus and the Ebers Papyrus date from the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries BCE. These manuscripts are believed to be derived from earlier sources. They contain recipes and spells for the treatment of a great variety of diseases or symptoms. They discuss the diagnosis of diseases and provide information of an anatomy. They detail the ancient Egyptian concept of medicine, anatomy, and physiology. The Kahun Papyrus is a gynecological text that deals with topics such as the reproductive organs, conception, testing for pregnancy, birth, and contraception. Among those materials prescribed for contraception are crocodile dung, honey, and sour milk.
Thanks to the medical papyri, we know of many of the ancient Egyptian treatments and prescriptions for diseases. They call for the treatment of many disorders and the use of a variety of substances, plant, animal, mineral, as well as the droppings and urine of a number of animals. They knew how to use suppositories, herbal dressings and enemas and widely used castor oil.
Honey and milk were used for the respiratory system as well as throat irritations.
Honey, a natural antibiotic, was also widely used to dress wounds.
Aloe Vera was used to treat worms, relieve headaches, soothe chest pains, burns, ulcers and for skin diseases.
Frankincense was used to treat throat and larynx infections, stop bleeding, as well as treating asthma.
Dill was used to sooth flatulence, also for its laxative and diuretic properties.
Caraway was used to treat flatulence and as a breath freshener.
Balsam Apple or Apple of Jerusalem was used as a laxative.
Garlic was believed to provide vitality, sooth flatulence and aids digestion, shrinks hemorrhoids, rids body of spirits.
Camphor tree was used to reduce fevers, sooth gums, and treat epilepsy.
Juniper tree was utilized to treat digestive ailments, sooth chest pains, sooth stomach cramps.
Mustard seeds were used to induce vomiting and relieve chest pains.
Onions could be used to induce perspiration, prevents colds, and as a diuretic.
Parsley was used as a diuretic.
Mint was used to sooth flatulence, aids digestion, stop vomiting, and as a breath freshener.
Sandalwood was used to aid digestion, stop diarrhea, and to treat gout.
Sesame was used to sooth asthma.
Poppy seeds were used to relieve insomnia, headaches, and as an anesthetic.
Thyme was also used as a pain reliever.
Resources:
Majno, Guido. The Healing Hand. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 1975.
Silverburg, Robert. The Dawn of Medicine. Putnam Publishing, New York. 1966.
Dawson, Warren R. The Beginnings, Egypt & Assyria. Hafner Publishing Company, New York. 1964.
Sanders, J. B. Transitions from Ancient Egyptian to Greek medicine. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence. 1963.
Medicine In Old Egypt. Edited and prepared by Prof. Hamed A. Ead.

Geography and Agriculture
The geography of Egypt is deeply important in understanding why the Egyptians centered their lives around the Nile. Both before and during the use of canal irrigation in Egypt, the Nile Valley could be separated into two parts, the River Basin or the flat alluvial (or black land soil), and the Red Land or red desert land. The River basin of the Nile was in sharp contrast to the rest of the land of Egypt and was rich with wild life and water fowl, depending on the waxing and waning cycles of the Nile. In contrast, the red desert was a flat dry area which was devoid of most life and water, regardless of any seasonal cycle.
The Nile in it's natural state goes through periods of inundation and relinquishment. The inundation of the Nile-a slightly unpredictable event- was the time of greatest fertility for Egypt. As the banks rose, the water would fill the man-made canals and canal basins and would water the crops for the coming year. However, if the inundation was even twenty inches above or below normal, it could have massive consequences upon the Egyptian agricultural economy. Even with this variability, the Egyptians were able to easily grow tree crops and vegetable gardens in the lower part of the Nile Valley, while at higher elevations, usually near levees, the Nile Valley was sparsely planted.
Agricultural crops were not the mainstay of the ancient Egyptian diet. Rather, the Nile supplied a constant influx of fish which were cultivated year around. In addition to fish, water fowl and cattle were also kept by the Egyptians. Flocks of geese were raised from the earliest times and supplied eggs, meat and fat. However, the domestic fowl didn't make its appearance until Ramesside times, and then in only very isolated places. The Egyptian farmers, in their early experimental phase, also tried to domesticate other animals such as hyenas, gazelles and cranes but gave up after the Old Kingdom. Cattle were also part of the staple diet of the Egyptians, suggesting that grazing land was available for the Egyptians during the times when the Nile receded. However, during the inundation, cattle were brought to the higher levels of the flood plain area and were often fed the grains harvested from the previous year.
The Egyptian diet was by no means limited to tree crops and vegetables, nor was it limited to an animal or fish diet. The Egyptians cultivated barley, emmer wheat, beans, chickpeas, flax, and other types of vegetables. In addition, the cultivation of grains was not entirely for consumption. One of the most prized products of the Nile and of Egyptian agriculture was oil. Oil was customarily used as a payment to workmen employed by the state, and depending on the type, was highly prized. The most common oil (kiki) was obtained from the castor oil plant. Sesame oil from the New Kingdom was also cultivated and was highly prized during the later Hellenistic Period.