El-Ain El-Sukhna


Cairo's nearest beach ...just an hour away
EL-Ain EL-Sukhna: the Arabic for “ hot spring” was named after the nearby sulphur springs .It is also an ideal site for fishing and water sports.
Ain El Sukhna is about 140 km east of Cairo, just an houraway by car. It offers Cairenes and welcome, handy respite from the city's fast paced life .
The area is 40 km south of the port of Suez and is administratively part of the Suez Governorate. Its territory extends along the Red Sea shoreline for about 60 km from the southern borders of Ras El Adebbya in the north to Ras El Zaafarana in the south.
Close enough to Cairo for a day-trip; this popular weekend resort has fine beaches and coves, coral reefs, fishing and water sports.
This is not just a destination for people wanting a suntan and a week at the beach. It is also a place where you can indulge in history. There is ample evidence that the area had its place in history. It includes a famous group of the world's oldest monasteries west of Zafarana on the road to Kuraymat.
The most celebrated ones are those of St. Anthony (c. 251 -356), the founding father of monasticism, and St. Paul, which were built more than 16 centuries ago.
Rituals followed inside the monasteries today have hardly changed in hundreds of years.
A group of historians also believe the northern part of the Mount of Galala El Bahareya was the point from which Moses and the Israelites crossed in their exodus from Egypt's mainland into the Sinai Peninsula. They cite in their claims the fact that the bottom of the Gulf of Suez at this point is elevated.
As the main route to the Indies for Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians, the Red Sea and its shores and ports also have a rich maritime history.
The area is known for its mild climate all year round. Temperatures range between a high of 32 degrees celsius and a low of 9 degrees in January and show a variation of between 36 degrees and 30 degrees in July .
The average rate of humidity is 50 percent. It ranges between a maximum of 72 percent and a minimum 48 percent in December and shows a variation between 58 percent in May .
Rainfall occurs largely in winter months. The average number of days having rainfall is 11 days a year, with the rain season spanning the November- May period. The average amount of rainfall stands at about 24 mm . Winds mainly blow from the north and the northwest gusting at an average.
Flora and Fauna paragon of wildlife. In spite of the low amounts and frequencies of rainfall, the usual desert growth of perennials and grasses is found. The Eastern Desert receives spares rainfall, which supports a varied vegetation that includes tamariskaccacia and markh ( a leafless, thorn less tree with bare branches and slendertwigs ) as well as great variety of thorny shrub, small succulent , and romantic herbs . Date and doum palms,both cultivated and sub spontaneous are found in the Oasis.Desert animals include dorcas gazelle , the miniature desert fox , the mountain goat ibex , the Egyptian hare and two kinds of jerboa( a mouse- like rodent with long hind legs for jumping)the Egyptian jackal and still exists.
There are two carnivorous mammals: a spices of wildcats and the striped Egyptian mongoose. Several varieties of lizards are found, including the large monitor. Because Egypt is rich in its bird life and many birds pass through in large numbers On their spring and autumn migrations, the area has its good share of more than 200 migrating types as well a more than 150 resident birds. Lammergeir and golden eagles are residents of the Eastern desert and Sinai. Resident desert birds are a distinct category, numbering about 24 kinds.
That exquisite corridor of tinted mountain and radiant water ...here and nowhere else is the vestibule between the Levant and the Topics ..." E.M.Forster describing the Gulf of Suez, 1923. The area's topography bestows on it a special lure and charm. It lies in one of the three tires of the eastern desert -the Red Sea Hills and Red Sea Coastal plane.This tier runs from near Suez to the Sudanese border.
The Hills are not a continuous range but consist of sets of interlocking systems more or less alignment. They are geographical complex, with igneous and metamorphic rocks . As such, it is regarded by Encyclopaedia Britannica as " a sub-region in itself . Ain El Sukhna is famed for two mountins that have religious significance: Attaqa, which rises more than 800 above sea leveland hems in the valleys (wadis ) of Hogouland Chuwaiba. Galala El Bahareya , the southern periphery of the area , which rises to more than 1,200 m and embarces the valleys of Kuthaib ( 75sq,km), Abul-dorg (68.5sq,km)and smaller ones such as ElMalha and Gar El Malha. These mountains and valleys constitute a main component in the area's attractiveness for tourists and local holiday-makers.
There are marks and signs showing that this area had its niche in the annals of history.The 4th century monasteries of St. Anthony the Great and St. Paul in the Eastern Desert, not far from Zafarana, are celebrated as the world's oldest. A group of historians believe it was around this area on the Red Sea that Moses and Israelites crossed into the Sinai in their exodus from Egypt. As the main route to the Indies for ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians, the Red Sea and its shores and ports have a rich maritime history.
The area could be reached by land through one of the following highways & roads: - The Cairo - Suez Highway 110 km - The Qattameya - Ein El Sukhna Highway 95 km - The Kuramat - Zafaran Road 120 km - The Hurgada - Zafarana Road 320 km - The Suez - Ain El Sukhna Road 40 km

Modern Egypt



By virtue of all his up-to-date all encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He encouraged and sponsored men of learning, scientists and artists. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A ship building industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria. He specially attended to the administration of government affairs. During the first half of the 19th Century, a full-scale economic revival was in full swing. Special attention was given to agriculture and irrigation, where barrages, dams and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy of dispensing with foreign-made products, and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of the army and the public. In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished. At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specialties were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt. After his death, Muhammad Ali's successors tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administrative reform, while agriculture, industry, construction and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal which was opened to international navigation in 1869.
Thus, the 19th Century was one of enlightenment, rediscovery of the Egyptian power system and development of human wealth. By the end of the century, Egypt witnessed many revolts against the foreign intervention. The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution (1882 AD) ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman suzerainty. Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, suffering under the yoke of British colonialist rule that plundered its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders: Mostafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed and Sa'ad Zaghloul, leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian Constitution was issued in 1923. Later, there ensued a period of economic revival led by the great nationalist economist Tala'at Harb, leading to the establishment of an industrial, productive and services base in all sectors of the economy. The July 23, 1952 Revolution
Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought about a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960). Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-1970). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture and construction. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements.
Cognizant since its inception of Egypt's leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestinian case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, Gamal Abdel Nasser, died in September 28, 1970. President Anwar el-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high.
In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Anwar as-Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) in March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadat's visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pursuant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice.
Following President Sadat's death in 1981, President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak assumed office. Since then, he has sought to bring about internal stability, improve and firmly establish democratic practice, the rule of law and help realize social peace and national unity. Mubarak's main concern centers on achieving comprehensive development.

Ottoman Era

In 1517, Sultan Selim I entered Egypt and he regulated rule in Egypt via dividing power among three bodies. The Wali, the governor, is the deputy of the Sultan in Egypt and he was appointed for 3 years only. His mission was to carry out the orders of the sultan, send Jezia and lead the armies. The Divan consisted of the major officers in the Ottoman army, major employees, scholars (Ulama) and landowners. The Divan's mission was to help the Wali in ruling the country and it had the veto right to the Wali's decisions besides calling for dismissing him. The Mamlukes led the local departments, as the Ottomans wanted to make use of their experience in running the affairs of the country. When Ali Bey Al-Kabir assumed the office of Skeikh Al-Balad, ruler of the country, he allied with Sheikh Daher Al-Omar in Palestine against the Ottoman sultan and expelled the Ottoman Wali and announced Egypt's independence. Ali Bey Al-Kabir managed to extend his influence to Al-Hejaz and Yemen and sent an army under the leadership of Muhammad Bey Abuda Dahab. Yet, the Ottomans managed to convince Abuda Dahab of allying with them against Ali Bey Al-Kabir, hence Egypt returned an Ottoman state.

The Mamluke Era


At the last days of the Ayyubid State, the Mamlukes controlled most of the important posts in Egypt. After the murdering of Turan Shah, the last of the Ayyubid Sultans, Shajarat El-Dur, wife of King Al-Salih Ayyoub, married Aybak one of the Bahari Mamlukes chiefs. After the death of Aybak, a number of Bahari Mamlukes ruled over Egypt the most famous of them was Sultan Qutuz who defeated the Tartars in `Ein Jalut. Sultan Baybars succeeded Qutuz and managed to achieve a religious sovereignty over the Muslim world.

The Ayyubid Era


Salah al-Din Al-Ayyubi (Saladin) assumed control of Egypt upon the death of the last Fatimid Caliph Al-Adid in 1171. Salah al-Din played a great role in establishing a Sunni state in Egypt by building a lot of Sunni schools (madrasas). Before his death, Salah al-Din divided his kingdom among his sons and brothers where Egypt was the share of his son Al-Aziz Othman.

The Fatimid Era

After the death of Abu el-Misk Kafour Al-Ikhshid, the commander of the Fatimids' armies Jawhar Al-Siqilli managed to capture Alexandria in 969 A.D. Hence, the Fatimid Caliphate began in Egypt and continued for two centuries (969: 1171). Al-Siqilli established a new capital for Egypt, namely Cairo and built Al-Azhar Mosque to teach Islamic sciences.

Ikhshidi Era


After the death of Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid, his minister Abu el-Misk Kafour had the guardianship over Al-Ikhshid's two sons. Under the name of Al-Ikhshid's sons, Kafour ruled over Egypt for 23 years. On his death, the eleven-year old boy Abu Al-Fawaris Ahmed, Al-Ikhshid's grandson, succeeded him. Therefore, chaos prevailed in Egypt, a matter that paved the way before the Fatimids to seize Egypt.

Abbasid Caliphate


Faris witnessed the birth of the Abbasid Caliphate when the leader of the Abbasid armies Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani revolted against the Umayyads where the battle first took place near the Euphrates before it moved to Egypt when the armies of the Abbasids, under the leadership of Salih bin Ali, achieved victory over the Umayyads and the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II was killed in 750 A.D. Then, after entering Egypt, the leader of the Abbasids Salih bin Ali established the capital of the Abbasids in Egypt called Al-Askar. Despite the capture of Egypt, the Abbasid influence was not stable, a matter that encouraged one of the Turk leaders in the Abbasid army in Egypt Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid to seize power.

Islamic Conquest of Egypt


In 640 A.D., Amr bin Al-As conquered Egypt and he besieged the Fortress of Babylon till the surrender of the Byzantine forces there in 641 A.D.
Then, he proceeded to Alexandria and by virtue of Babylon Agreement, Alexandria surrendered too and he continued his conquest of Egypt.

The Egyptian Civilization during the Islamic Era


The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt.
Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in al-Qatay' city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn el-Aas mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props and the foundation sign board. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape in Egypt derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”.
The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and Al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt.
Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion.
During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah ed-Din's (Saladin's) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics' houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains.
Egyptians under Islamic rule adopted the same techniques and styles of art and ornamentation prevailing in the preceding periods. Most notable arts of this period were wood engraving and ornamentation, assembled dove tailed and lathed wood work. Islamic style textiles, porcelain and stained glass were also widely known during this period.

Coptic Era

Christianity entered Egypt in the half of the first century A.D. When Saint Mark entered Alexandria in 65 A.D., the first Coptic Church was established in Egypt. At the end of the third century A.D., the Roman emperor Diocletian suppressed the Copts and many of them fell martyrs, hence the period was called Era of Martyrs. The year in which Diocletian assumed power (284 A.D.) was taken by the Copts as the beginning of the Coptic calendar. The Coptic architecture flourished in this period where the churches, established in the fifth century A.D. were a model of the Coptic art and architecture. As the ancient Egyptians knew music, the Copts composed melodies similar to that of the ancient Egyptians and up till now melodies in the Coptic Church still have their Pharaonic names as Singari and Itribini

The Egyptian Civilization under the Romans


In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to its unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire.
During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics and fine linen fabrics.
The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial centre in the east Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire.
Alexandria University maintained its position as a centre of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt.

Egypt in the Greek Era



Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time.
Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC-30 BC)
After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC.
The Egyptian Civilization under the Ptolemies
Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a centre of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also as the prime sea harbor on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known Lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its University, which symbolized a great Hellenistic- Egyptian civilization.
Alexandria University
At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived at scientific facts concerning the earth's rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous of the university scientists were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.
Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) and its Cultural Influence
The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time. The Library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at Alexandria Library to more than 700,000. The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs' apparel

Egypt in the Pharaonic Era


The Pharaonic Era dates back to 3000 years B.C. till Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 323 B.C. During the Pharaonic Era, Egypt witnessed many aspects of progress and renaissance in all fields. Historians divide the Pharaonic Era into three successive divisions: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Modern Kingdom. The Pharaonic Era is thus divided into three dynasties as follows:
Ancient Age (Dynasties I & II)
In 3200 B.C. Menes managed to unify north and south of Egypt and he established the first ruling dynasty. To secure the unity of Egypt, Menes established the city of Memphis near Delta.
Old Kingdom (Dynasties from III to VI) During the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed stability, security and peace, a matter that achieved its economic, cultural and artistic progress in this time. The kings of the Old Kingdom ruled till 2800 B.C. after the throne of Egypt moved to Manf by Zoser, whose pyramid is the oldest known one at Saqqara. The Egyptian civilization flourished in this period, a matter represented in the building of the Giza Pyramids: Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus).
The First Middle Age (Dynasties from VII to X) This age began in 2200 B.C. when Menthotpe II (Mentuhotep) managed to reunify the country.
The Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI& XII)

After Menthotpe II, the Prince of Thebes, managed to reunify the country and founded a strong government, Egypt flourished economically. In 2000 B.C. Amenemhet I played a great role in the renaissance of the Middle Kingdom. The kings and queens of Dynasty XII acquired fame all over the world in the fields of policy, war, culture civilization and religion such as Ahmos, hero of liberation, Amenhotep I who laid down fair standards for wages and incentives, Tuhutmos I, the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders north and south, and spread out education everywhere, Tuhutmos III who possessed a unique military genius, Tuhutmos IV, the diplomat who was the first to record international agreements. This is in addition to Akhenaton who was the first to call for the oneness of the Creator and Tut Ankh Amun, who gained fame in the modern time. The most famous queens of this time were Ahmos Nefertari, wife of Ahmos I, Tee, mother of Akhenaton, Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton and Hatchepsut who ruled Egypt for 20 years. The Second Middle Age (Dynasties XIII, XVII) In 1725 B.C. the Hyksos attacked Egypt and occupied the Egyptian lands. Yet, the princes of Thebes, led by Ahmos I, managed to expel them out of Egypt.
The Modern Kingdom (Dynasties XVIII, XX)
After Ahmos expelled the Hyksos, he worked on establishing a well-equipped army. Ramsis II, one of the most famous kings of the Modern Kingdom, signed the first peace treaty in history with the Hittites.
The Late Age (Dynasties XXI to XXX) From Dynasty XXI till Dynasty XVIII, the Assyrians and the Persians occupied Egypt, till the rule of the Pharaohs ended during the reign of Dynasty XXX when Alexander the Great conqured Egypt. Arts of the Pharaonic Civilization Architecture
Ancient Egyptians made outstanding achievements in architecture, as can be clearly seen from the everlasting monuments they have left behind. The first pyramid ever built in Egypt was Zoser's, then Midum's pyramid. However, the Giza pyramids together with the Sphinx, built during the 4th Dynasty, are the most famous of the 97 pyramids built to be tombs for Pharaohs.
During the period of the Middle Kingdom, many funerary temples were built. The 12th Dynasty kings were also interested in el-Fayyoum area where they attended to irrigation works. The most famous of those temples was the Labyrinth Temple or the “Maze Palace” as called by the Greeks. The temple was built in Hawwara by King Amenemehet III, who also built castles, fortresses and walls along Egypt's eastern borders.
The period of the Middle Kingdom was the heyday of architectural arts, where exquisite inscriptions and fine artworks were engraved on the walls of colossal temples, the most prominent ones were Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel.
The era of Thutmose I was a turning point in using pyramids as tombs. On the west bank of the Nile at Luxor, there were carved-into-mountains tombs with rich and luxurious funerary furniture. This can be clearly seen in the tomb of Tutankhamun.
In order to keep wall inscriptions intact, the artists of the Modern kingdom deliberately used deep slightly embossed engravings, thus, avoiding distortion or erosion.
The most recently discovered tomb of the Valley of Kings was that of the sons of King Ramsis II; a vast tomb containing 15 mummies. Pharaonic obelisks were cut out of granite and erected in two-somes at the entrance of temples. Some of the most beautiful examples of architectural art in the ancient Egyptian empire are the temples of Amun, Cheops in Karnak and Luxor, Ramsium and Hetshep-sut at ad-Deir al-Bahari as well as the rock-embedded temples such as the major and minor temples of Abu Simbel.
New trends in the architectural, plastic and applied arts emerged as can be clearly seen in the sculptured colossal and minor statues and ornamented temple columns and mural inscriptions. This elevated style is evident in thousands of small statues made from alabaster, wood or ivory and pieces of antiquities made of glass and earthenware and jewelry inlaid with precious stones.
Literature
Ancient Egyptian monuments still bear witness to their excellent talent in writing and literature. Humanity is indebted to ancient Egyptians for inventing writing, later called by the Greeks the “hieroglyphic alphabet”; composed of 24 letters. Writings were made in black or red ink on papyrus. Egyptians excelled in religious writing which tackled their religious creeds and theories of the after life, secrets of the universe, various myths of gods, prayers and songs. The oldest examples of which were “The Pyramids Texts” and “The Book of the Dead”.
Ancient Egyptian writers were excellent story writers. They used words as a tool to convey wisdom and rules of good conduct. Ancient Egyptians were bent on narrating their heritage of wise sayings and proverbs, chanting them in their feasts and ceremonies. They pursued the tradition of documenting current events of their times. This rich cultural climate was instrumental in generating several Egyptian men of letters and philosophers who left masterpieces indicative of a high level of culture and thought in Egypt.
Music
Music and songs were a favorite object for all Egyptians. Music was used for educating young people as well as in public and private ceremonies, particularly in the army. It was equally used in prayers and the burial of the dead.
Egyptians from the Old Kingdom knew wind and stringed instruments such as the “harp” known at that time as “Tipoti”. They also invented many new types of percussion instruments which were further improved across their history.
Ornamentation
Ornaments, characterized by high artistic precision and beautiful form, were also known to ancient Egyptians. Decorative elements were derived from natural surroundings including papyrus, palm trees, lotus flowers and precious stones. Amulets, believed to protect them against evil spirits, were used. Women, in particular, paid special attention to their own make-up and toilet. They were accustomed to use Kohl (as eye-liner), bracelets, necklaces, rings and henna. Costumes in Pharaonic Egypt varied from one class to another. Clothes were made of soft linen or silk fabrics imported from ancient Syria (Phoenicia). Clothes differed according to the occasion.

History of Egypt


The history of Egypt is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. The Nile valley forms a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the east and west by deserts, to the north by the sea and to the south by the Cataracts of the Nile. The need to have a single authority to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world's first state in Egypt in about 3000 BC. Egypt's peculiar geography made it a difficult country to attack, which is why Pharaonic Egypt was for so long an independent and self-contained state. The Nubians and Hyksos were among the earliest foreign rulers of Egypt, but the ancient Egyptians regained control of their country soon after their invasions. The Neo-Assyrian Empire also controlled Egypt for a while before native Egyptians regained control.
Once Egypt did succumb to foreign rule, however, it proved unable to escape from it, and for 2,400 years, Egypt was governed by a series of foreign powers: the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Rashidun, Umayyads, Abbasids, Ottomans, French, and British. At certain periods during these 2,400 years, Egypt was independently governed under the Ptolemies, Ikhshidids, Fatimids, Ayyubids, Mamluks and Muhammad Ali. The founders and rulers of these governments, however, were not native to Egypt.
When Gamal Abdel Nasser (President of Egypt) (1954–1970) remarked that he was the first native Egyptian to exercise sovereign power in the country since Pharaoh Nectanebo II, deposed by the Persians in 343 BC, he was exaggerating only slightly.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Music

Main article: Music of Egypt

Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. These prominent artists were followed later by Amr Diab. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.

Festivals
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

Music

Main article: Music of Egypt

Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. These prominent artists were followed later by Amr Diab. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.

Festivals
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Egypt

Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city.
Egyptian culture has five thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.

Renaissance
The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[78] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[79]

Art and architecture

Eighteenth dynasty painting from the tomb of Theban governor Ramose in Deir el-Madinah.
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.
The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[80] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.

Literature
Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[81] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[82] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Egypt

Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques. Since 640 AD, as many mosques have appeared throughout Egypt, so Cairo, has acquired the nickname of "city of a thousand minarets"
Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims comprising about 90% of a population of around 80 million Egyptians[66][67][68][69] Almost the entirety of Egypt's Muslims are Sunnis.[66] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[70] and there is a minority of Shi'a.
Most of the non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians. Christians represent around 10% of the population[66][67][68][69] and are the largest Christian community in the Middle East.[71] Around 90% of Christians in Egypt belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[67][68] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria.
There is also a small, but nonetheless historically significant, non-immigrant Bahá'í population around 2000[72], and an even smaller community of Jews of about 200,[72][73] then a tiny number of Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic. The non-Sunni, non-Coptic communities range in size from several hundreds to a few thousand. The original Ancient Egyptian religion has all but disappeared.
According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic law; however, the constitution bans political parties with a religious agenda.[74]
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 A.D by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt and the main Egyptian Church the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark.
In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors, they share a common history and national identity. They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language.[72]

Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt

Millions of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives, The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets",[75] with a significant number of church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious extremism,[38] recently witnessing a 2006 judgement of Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e., Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and all other religious beliefs. This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbids practice of all but the three Abrahamic religions.[76] This judgement had made it necessary for non-Abrahamic religious communities to either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (see Egyptian identification card controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minorities may obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[39]
In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January the 7th) was recognized as an official holiday,[77] though Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[36] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Egypt

Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques. Since 640 AD, as many mosques have appeared throughout Egypt, so Cairo, has acquired the nickname of "city of a thousand minarets"
Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims comprising about 90% of a population of around 80 million Egyptians[66][67][68][69] Almost the entirety of Egypt's Muslims are Sunnis.[66] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[70] and there is a minority of Shi'a.
Most of the non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians. Christians represent around 10% of the population[66][67][68][69] and are the largest Christian community in the Middle East.[71] Around 90% of Christians in Egypt belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[67][68] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria.
There is also a small, but nonetheless historically significant, non-immigrant Bahá'í population around 2000[72], and an even smaller community of Jews of about 200,[72][73] then a tiny number of Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic. The non-Sunni, non-Coptic communities range in size from several hundreds to a few thousand. The original Ancient Egyptian religion has all but disappeared.
According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic law; however, the constitution bans political parties with a religious agenda.[74]
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 A.D by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt and the main Egyptian Church the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark.
In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors, they share a common history and national identity. They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language.[72]

Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt

Millions of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives, The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets",[75] with a significant number of church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious extremism,[38] recently witnessing a 2006 judgement of Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e., Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and all other religious beliefs. This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbids practice of all but the three Abrahamic religions.[76] This judgement had made it necessary for non-Abrahamic religious communities to either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (see Egyptian identification card controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minorities may obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[39]
In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January the 7th) was recognized as an official holiday,[77] though Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[36] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians

Egyptian farm
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 75 million people (as of mid-2008). Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[57] Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,[58] made by the Green Revolution.[59]
Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 98% of the total population.[57] Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.
Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, but they are estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[60] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[60] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[61] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[62] The once-vibrant Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.

Media
Main article: Media of Egypt
Egyptian media are highly influential both in Egypt and the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[63][64] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[63][65] After the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, Ahmed Selim, office director for Information Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."[64]

Economy

Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[52]
The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 LT/660,000 ST) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over 1,100,000 cubic meters (39,000,000 cu ft) in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[citation needed] Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.

Tourists ride in traditional Nile boats.
FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth.[53][54][55] Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat.[56]
The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Egypt

National
Egypt has been a republic since June 18, 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on July 9, 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.
Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.
In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."[29] However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.[30] Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[31] After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law."[32]
As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.[33] A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.[34]
Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.[35] As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum would be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27, 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of certain opposition elements, particularly Islamists.

Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Egypt

Members of the Kefaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also video.
Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[36]
Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires governmental approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[37] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, also remains a problem.[36] The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[38] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[39] (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the Religion section.)
In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[40] It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[41]
In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.[42] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.[43]
Consensual homosexual conduct between adults is criminalized under Egyptian law as a "practice of debauchery".[44] Since 2001, Egyptian authorities have made hundreds of arbitrary arrests of young gay men, many of whom have been tried and convicted for acts of "debauchery", while hundreds of others have been harassed and tortured, according to HRW.[45] In February 2008, a new round of arrests and torture of HIV-positive citizens followed a man's admission to the police that he was HIV-positive, sparking international outcry that the Egyptian government was treating the AIDS disease as a homosexual "crime" instead of providing care, prevention and education.[46]
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[47] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.[48] The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations[49] and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[50] Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[34] but in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.[51]

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt
Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute.
Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Governorates and markazes
Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Markazes of Egypt

Map of Egypt, showing the 29 capitals of governorates, plus the self-governing city of Luxor (numbers label 5 capitals).
Egypt is divided into 29 governorates (in Arabic, called muhafazat, singular muhafazah). The governorates are further divided into regions (markazes).
Each governorate has a capital, often having the same name as the governorate (see map, showing names of the 29 capitals).
The tables (below) list the governorates in alphabetical order. In April 2008, Cairo and Giza have divided to 4 governorates, the new governorates are 6th of October and Helwan beside Cairo and Giza