Ptolemy I Soter


Ptolemy I Soter (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ, Ptolemaĩos Sōtḗr, i.e. Ptolemy the Savior, ca.367 BC—ca.283 BC) was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great who became ruler of Egypt (323 BC—283 BC) and founder of both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Dynasty. In 305/4 BC he took the title of king.

He was the son of Arsinoe of Macedonia, and, while his father is unknown, he was described in ancient times as either the son of Lagus, a Macedonian nobleman, or that he was an illegitimate son of Philip II of Macedon (which would make him the half-brother of Alexander the Great if true). Ptolemy was one of Alexander the Great's most trusted generals, and among the seven somatophylakes, or bodyguards, attached to his person. He was a few years older than Alexander, and his intimate friend since childhood. He may even have been in the group of noble teenagers tutored by Aristotle. He was with Alexander from his first campaigns, and played a principal part in the later campaigns in Afghanistan and India. At the Susa marriage festival in 324, Alexander had him marry the Persian princess Artakama. Ptolemy also had a consort in Thaïs, the Athenian hetaera and one of Alexander's companions in his conquest of the ancient world.
Successor of Alexander
When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to have instigated the resettlement of the empire made at Babylon. Through the Partition of Babylon, he was now appointed satrap of Egypt, under the nominal kings Philip Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV; the former satrap, the Greek Cleomenes, stayed on as his deputy. Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subjugate Cyrenaica.

By custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Probably because he wanted to pre-empt Perdiccas, the imperial regent, from staking his claim in this way, Ptolemy took great pains in acquiring the body of Alexander the Great, placing it temporarily in Memphis. Ptolemy then openly joined the coalition against Perdiccas. Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aiming for the throne himself, and maybe decided that Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy executed Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas — this removed the chief check on his authority, and allowed Ptolemy to obtain the huge sum that Cleomenes had accumulated.
In 321, Perdiccas invaded Egypt. Ptolemy decided to defend the Nile, and Perdiccas's attempt to force it ended in fiasco, with the loss of 2000 men. This was a fatal blow to Perdiccas' reputation, and he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates. Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide supplies to what had the day before been an enemy army. Ptolemy was offered the regency in place of Perdiccas; but he declined[2]. Ptolemy was consistent in his policy of securing a power base, while never succumbing to the temptation of risking all to succeed Alexander.

In the long wars that followed between the different Diadochi, Ptolemy's first goal was to hold Egypt securely, and his second was to secure control in the outlying areas: Cyrenaica and Cyprus, as well as Syria, including the province of Judea. His first occupation of Syria was in 318, and he established at the same time a protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus One-Eye, master of Asia in 315, showed dangerous ambitions, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him, and on the outbreak of war, evacuated Syria. In Cyprus, he fought the partisans of Antigonus, and re-conquered the island (313). A revolt in Cyrene was crushed the same year.
In 312, Ptolemy and Seleucus, the fugitive satrap of Babylonia, both invaded Syria, and defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes ("besieger of cities"), the son of Antigonus, in the Battle of Gaza. Again he occupied Syria, and again—after only a few months, when Demetrius had won a battle over his general, and Antigonus entered Syria in force—he evacuated it. In 311, a peace was concluded between the combatants. Soon after this, the surviving 13-year-old king, Alexander IV, was murdered in Macedonia, leaving the satrap of Egypt absolutely his own master. The peace did not last long, and in 309 Ptolemy personally commanded a fleet that detached the coastal towns of Lycia and Caria from Antigonus, then crossed into Greece, where he took possession of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara (308 BC). In 306, a great fleet under Demetrius attacked Cyprus, and Ptolemy's brother Menelaus was defeated and captured in another decisive Battle of Salamis. Ptolemy's complete loss of Cyprus followed.

The satraps Antigonus and Demetrius now each assumed the title of king; Ptolemy, as well as Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus I Nicator, responded by doing the same. In the winter of 306 BC, Antigonus tried to follow up his victory in Cyprus by invading Egypt; but Ptolemy was strongest there, and successfully held the frontier against him. Ptolemy led no further overseas expeditions against Antigonus. However, he did send great assistance to Rhodes when it was besieged by Demetrius (305/304). Pausanius reports that the grateful Rhodians bestowed the name Soter ("saviour") upon him as a result of lifting the siege. This account is generally accepted by modern scholars, although the earliest datable mention of it is from coins issued by Ptolemy II in 263 BC.

When the coalition against Antigonus was renewed in 302, Ptolemy joined it, and invaded Syria a third time, while Antigonus was engaged with Lysimachus in Asia Minor. On hearing a report that Antigonus had won a decisive victory there, he once again evacuated Syria. But when the news came that Antigonus had been defeated and slain by Lysimachus and Seleucus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301, he occupied Syria a fourth time.

The other members of the coalition had assigned all Syria to Seleucus, after what they regarded as Ptolemy's desertion, and for the next hundred years, the question of the ownership of southern Syria (ie, Judea) produced recurring warfare between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties. Henceforth, Ptolemy seems to have mingled as little as possible in the rivalries between Asia Minor and Greece; he lost what he held in Greece, but reconquered Cyprus in 295/294. Cyrene, after a series of rebellions, was finally subjugated about 300 and placed under his stepson Magas.

In 285, Ptolemy made his son by Berenice - Ptolemy II Philadelphus his co-regent. His eldest (legitimate) son, Ptolemy Keraunos, whose mother, Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater, had been repudiated, fled to the court of Lysimachus. Ptolemy I Soter died in 283 at the age of 84. Shrewd and cautious, he had a compact and well-ordered realm to show at the end of forty years of war. His reputation for bonhomie and liberality attached the floating soldier-class of Macedonians and Greeks to his service, and was not insignificant; nor did he wholly neglect conciliation of the natives. He was a ready patron of letters, founding the Great Library of Alexandria. He himself wrote a history of Alexander's campaigns that has not survived. This used to be considered an objective work, distinguished by its straightforward honesty and sobriety. However, Ptolemy may have exaggerated his own role, and had propagandist aims in writing his History. Although now lost, it was a principal source for the surviving account by Arrian of Nicomedia.

Ancient Egyptian Art -- Timeless and Beautiful Today

Ancient Egyptian Art is one of the most recognized, admired and collected art in the history of the world. From delicate gold jewelry to vivid paintings to massive statues dozens of feet tall, for over 5,000 years Egyptian art has fascinated, delighted and awed generation after generation with its beauty, style and mystery. While genuine ancient pieces of art are rare and extremely valuable, modern Egyptian artists make beautiful art and jewelry that is inspired by some of the greatest recovered works from ancient sites, and which adheres strictly to the styles used by ancient artists. Jewelry in gold and silver with inlaid stones are fashioned after pieces of jewelry recovered from ancient tombs. Papyrus Paintings are painted in vivid color on genuine papyrus, made using the same principles developed thousands of years ago on the banks of the Nile, where the papyrus plant grows to this day. Paintings are executed in the style of frontalism, one of the most striking characteristics of ancient Egypt.

Frontalism

Frontalism is the style in which every known piece of ancient Egyptian art was produced. In paintings, the style of frontalism means that the head of the character is drawn in profile, while the body is drawn from a front view. However, even though the face is in profile, the eye is drawn in full, as it would be seen from the front. The legs always face the same direction as the head, with one foot forward and one back.

Ancient Egyptian figures, especially of gods and pharaohs, are noticeable for their very formal, even rigid stance and posture, but their faces are always serene, regardless of the scene in which they are depicted. There were very strict rules about how a god or pharaoh could be represented, which even included a prohibition against anything being drawn in front of the face or body of the pharaoh, even when the scene depicted clearly required it for any kind of realism. Realism was simply not a goal of ancient Egyptian Art. It is these very formal and stylized rules that have made Egyptian Art one of the most widely recognized forms of art in the world. Over thousands of years Egyptian artists adhered to this one style, which is quite remarkable, especially as compared to the extreme differences in art expression that have occurred in the modern world in just the past 100 years or so. The only acknowledged variations are in the portrayals of animals and common people as compared to the more formal depictions of pharaohs and gods. As can be seen in many Egyptian paintings, animals and common people or slaves are represented in a more natural manner, though still within very strict and formulaic rules.

This frontalist style is the primary reason why ancient Egyptian art is so easily recognizable, and its appeal has lasted through many centuries to this day.


About The Author

Ann M. Hession is the founder of http://www.egyptianartisans.com. A graduate of Harvard University, Ms. Hession has been fascinated by ancient Egyptian art and culture since high school. Egyptian Artisans is dedicated to sharing the beauty and mystery of ancient Egypt through making available fine Egyptian art and jewelry.

The Red Sea in Egypt for Scuba Diving

For many Europeans, traveling to the Red Sea for scuba diving is like many North Americans going to the Caribbean. For a scuba diver based in North America or anywhere else outside of Europe or Africa, a journey to the Red Sea is considered one of the more exotic scuba diving trips. Like other overseas travel, getting to the final destination is the hardest thing. The Red Sea can be dived from ports in both Egypt and Israel but most international scuba divers do so from the Egyptian side. There are two major scuba diving areas in Egypt, Sharm El Sheikh and Hurghada. Sharm El Sheikh at the northern part of the Red Sea is the more established center having been a popular vacation resort area as both Egyptians and Europeans have been vacationing here for many years. The local scuba dive industry grew along with the overall steady growth of classy resorts, shops and other tourist services in Sharm El Sheikh. Hurghada, once just a sleepy fishing village along the west side of the Red Sea, is starting to grow as scuba divers discover this alternative to Sharm El Sheikh.

More than likely, travelers going to either Sharm El Sheikh or Hurghada will have to fly to Cairo before connecting with Egypt Air or taking a bus to their final destination. Many scuba divers turn their Red Sea diving trip into a major extended holiday in order to both dive and see the many wonderful ancient Egyptian sites such as the pyramids. There are many things to see and do in Egypt in addition to the ancient ruins including museums, markets and Nile river cruises. So it is highly recommended to do some research and plan accordingly for any trip to Egypt as one would not want to run into the situation where not enough time was allocated to see everything one wants to see there in addition to scuba diving.

Many of the scuba operators in Sharm El Sheikh are affiliated or close by to a hotel resort. Most of the dive shops are actually owned and staffed by Europeans working in Egypt. This is similar to the situation in the Caribbean where many of the scuba operators there are American owned. The Red Sea has a higher salt content than Caribbean waters so it is recommended to add 4 to 5 more pounds to the amount of weight divers usually use. Like most European diving, the scuba community here in Egypt uses the metric system so weights will be in kilos while air pressure will be in bars. Most dive computers should be able to display both metric and imperial systems.

Many scuba operators in Sharm El Sheikh use a very interesting system for scuba tanks. Rather than using their own tanks, their dive boats go to a common central barge anchored in the harbor. This is where all the scuba tanks are supplied from and the dive boats collect the number of tanks they need for day’s dive trips. At the end of the trips, used tanks are dropped off at the same barge before heading back to port.

The majority of the dives in the Red Sea are semi drift dives where the dive boats drop off divers at the dive sites and then pick them up afterwards. One very different aspect of the Red Sea compared to other dive destinations in the world is that the coral reefs here can extend up to very shallow depths. As a result, the standard safety stops at 15 feet are done drifting among many of these sloping reefs along with the accompanying marine life. Therefore, these are some of the most scenic safety stops scuba divers will ever do. This is certainly different from the usual bland safety stop in the Caribbean. One thing to note is that the maximum allowable depth for recreational scuba divers in Egypt is 30 meters which is about 90 feet.

As expected, the marine life in the Red Sea is spectacular. There are many species of fish, crustaceans and marine plant life here that are not found in the Caribbean. In fact, many of them are indigenous to the Red Sea only. While lionfish can be extremely rare sightings elsewhere, they are quite abundant in the Red Sea which is a real treat for scuba divers. It is also not unusual to jump in the water to be among a large school of tuna or other fish. Many night divers will see coral reefs here to be more spectacular than in the Caribbean.

For many scuba divers, the Red Sea is one of those ‘must dive at least once in a lifetime’ destinations. It is a very unique place to dive especially with the desert background visible from the dive boats. The excellent diving with the many awesome sights of Egypt make the Red Sea a dream dive trip for any scuba diver.

About The Author


Clint Leung is a NAUI certified Master and Rescue Scuba Diver. He is also owner of Free Spirit Activewear (www.FreeSpiritActivewear.com) , an online retailer/designer specializing in premium quality scuba diving activewear. Free Spirit Activewear has numerous information resource articles on scuba diving as well as free eCards.

Why Egyptian Cotton Is Still King

Egyptian cotton has become wildly popular for bedding in recent years. Why exactly? Does it really matter?

It was thought for ages that cotton was cotton and thread count was king when choosing quality sheets. That is no longer true. Consumer guidelines for buying bedding suggest that cotton from Egypt is superior to other cotton. Is this true and, if so, what is the big difference?

Egyptian cottons are used to create bedding of all types from sheets to pillowcases to comforters. The long staple or long fiber of Egyptian-grown cotton means that there is more continuous fiber to use when creating threads or yarns. This yarn is smaller in diameter yet stronger than other cottons. Smaller yarn means that more threads per square inch can be use to create stronger fabric which is light in weight yet breathes well.

More threads per inch mean that the thread count on the bedding label will be higher. Many buyers think that choosing high thread count sheets is the only gauge of quality. This is not true, but in the case of cotton grown in Egypt, the higher thread count means the fabric will be incredibly strong and will last for years and years. If cared for properly, Egyptian produced cotton fabric used for creating bedding products can last for decades.

The hand or feel of the sheets created from Egyptian grown cotton is a bit harder than other cottons when the bedding is new. However, with every single laundering, the cotton sheets from Egyptian fibers become softer and softer. Like a fine wine, age improves the Egyptian fiber cotton bedding and, unlike many products, you will prize your Egyptian fiber sheets of cotton more and more as they age and become soft and cuddly.

Cotton grown in the Egyptian fields will also produce less lint and therefore will not pill after repeated washings as some materials may do. At one time, the only way to obtain Egyptian fiber cotton sheets was to shop in high-end expensive stores. This is no longer true and most department stores and online bedding stores carry a selection of Egyptian produced cotton sheets and other bedding items for the buyer seeking this quality product.

King Cotton was once the name for the cotton grown in the Deep South of the United States. This cotton has much shorter fibers or staple than the Egyptian produced cotton. Egyptian fiber is now considered the king of all cottons for its durability and luxurious feel. After all, we spend almost one-third of our lives in our beds and our bedding should be comfortable and durable. Choosing the right sheets made from the king of cotton, Egyptian produced fibers, you will experience a bed that is comfortable and cozy.

A word of caution regarding bedding labels: if the package says "cotton rich" the actual amount of cotton, whether Egyptian or other cotton, is not stated and can be a very small amount. It is better to select products that state 100% cotton or, if choosing a blend fabric, that clearly state the exact proportion of cotton in the bedding. This will ensure your product composition is one that you will be pleased with.

If the package says "percale", this means that the thread count is at least 180 count. Many people believe that percale is a fabric type in its own right. This isn't the case at all; it simply means the thread count is 180 or more. Percale can be 100% cotton or a blend of cotton and other fibers!

Sferra Brothers always has a special eye for quality and their Celeste linens in 100% cotton from Egypt is no exception. These mix and match fine quality linens are created with 406 thread count. The linens are cool and crisp yet soft for luxurious comfort. White plus 10 solid colors are available. You simply can't go wrong with these machine washable luxury linens.

Matouk Classics collection includes the Lowell design. These Egyptian long fiber cotton sheets are 600 thread count for true luxury. Available in white with one inch sateen tape accents around edges of pillow cases and on sheet hem. Select choice of five solid colors for the accent. These linens are elegant enough for the finest bedrooms.

Frette's 600 thread count Royalty sheet sets come in a shade called "money green" which is actually a deep olive green. Other colors are also available. The linens are accented with a square jacquard weave around the edges for a very distinctive, classic look. If you want beauty beyond compare, these linens from Frette are for you.

Egyptian remains King of the cotton world today and will retain that crown for many years into the future.

You'll find this long staple cotton used in sheets by many different designers and can enjoy this Egyptian luxury, suitable for the kings and pharaohs in your very own home!

About The Author


Patricia Bowlin makes it easy to create a bedroom with flair! Find countless Free tips, ideas and information here on choosing all of your bedding by visiting now http://www.best-in-bedding.com.

The Role of Animals of Ancient Egypt

To the ancient Egyptians, animals were created by the gods and given rights equal to that of mankind. They saw animals not as their subjects, but rather as independent beings, and treated them with respect. [A]

The Nile served as a source of food and was the most important factor to the agriculture of the region. Fish were plentiful and could be eaten roasted, boiled, salted, preserved, or simply dried in the sun. Because the Nile would flood annually, it revitalized the land with water and fertile silt, enriching the soil to grow wheat, fruits, and vegetables. Additionally, it provided thick grasses on which animals would graze.

The people of ancient Egypt were mainly pescarian, meaning they would often eat fish. The Nile supplied many types of fish, including: catfish, mullet, tilapia, sturgeon, eel, carp, and perch, which were all an important source of nourishment. Along the Nile, there were restrictions on the types of fish that could be eaten because of their connections with the gods. The Pharaoh and other priests would abstain from eating fish altogether because it was forbidden by one of their deities as a food reserved for peasants.

Bread was their main staple, made from wheat and barley. From time to time, they supplemented their diet with antelope, which they hunted. Occasionally they ate pork and goat, which were raised on farms.

The Egyptians also raised sheep, cattle, geese and ducks. These animals not only provided them with food, drink, leather and skins, but also helped with their daily lives. Oxen and cattle were used for plowing the fields, and other animals were used for trampling seeds into the soil, and eating unwanted grain.

Birds were of extreme importance to the ancient Egyptians as well. Along the Nile, the bird-life included the falcon, kite, goose, crane, heron, pigeon, ibis, vulture and owl. Numerous birds were actually kept in sacred flocks and some were elevated in status to become temple animals. From the vast collection of ancient Egyptian artwork, evidence exists of several species of birds that are now extinct.

Beekeeping began in Egypt around 2500 BC in the Fifth Dynasty. Egyptians loved honey and they would take great pains to cultivate it. They not only kept bees, but they also actively went out and searched for the honey of wild bees. They would use bee wax for embalming, offerings to the gods, medicines, makeup, and as a bonding agent. They named the honeybee after the bull-like god named Apis because they believed it had similar characteristics. (The historian Herodotus described this bull as being black, with a white diamond on its forehead and two white hairs on its tail.)

Horses were introduced much later into Egyptian society – around 1500 BC. They were a status symbol for the owners and were mainly used to carry chariots into battle and for ceremonial occasions. Horses were rarely ridden and if so, only by royalty. They were well cared for and given individual names. Donkeys were the main beasts of burden. They were used as pack animals and for carrying heavy bundles of grain from the field to the threshing floor. Female donkeys, which produced higher-protein and sweeter milk than cows, were kept as dairy animals.

Hunting was seen as a symbol of mastery over animal forces. Egyptians believed it was their role to conquer the land. Dogs, resembling greyhounds, would help them while hunting. There is evidence from the tomb paintings that the ancient Egyptians sometimes took along cheetahs they had tamed.

The hunters knew their animals well. They studied their characteristics, including their diet and mating habits. This knowledge brought about a great respect for the animals and aided them in the hunt. Oftentimes, they would hunt great cats, which were not always killed. [C] Smaller jungle mammals and wild cats, such as the cheetah, were often kept as family pets. Ramses the Great is said to have had a pet lion.

Dog, cats, monkeys, and birds were also a part of the nuclear family. So devoted were these ancient people to their pets, that upon the pet's passing, they would often carry out the same rites and rituals as they would for any other family member. Pets and sacred animals were mummified and put in special cemeteries. Animals that belonged to the Pharaoh's royal family were mummified and buried with them so they could continue in the afterlife together. The following inscription for a well-loved dog was found in a tomb dating from the 5th or 6th dynasty:

"The dog which was the guard of His Majesty. Abuwtiyuw is his name. His Majesty ordered that he be buried, that he be given a coffin from the royal treasury, fine linen in great quantity, incense. His Majesty gave perfumed ointment and [ordered] that a tomb be built for him by the gang of masons. His Majesty did this for him in order that he might be honored". [1]

For many years, animal mummies have been overlooked while research went on regarding human mummies and other treasures found in the tombs. The study of this previously neglected area of Egyptology has finally changed, thanks to the work of Dr. Salima Ikram, one of the leading experts in Egyptian funerary archaeology. Dr. Ikram is the founder and co-director of the Animal Mummy Project at the Cairo Museum. This project has shed new light on the past, revealing the techniques of mummification and the reasons for it. Regarding the latter, Dr. Ikram tells us four reasons why animals were mummified.

1. They were mummified because they were sacred.
2. They were mummified to please the animal deities (i.e. as offerings to the gods).
3. The ancient Egyptians believed that the afterlife included animals. Therefore, they wanted their pets to continue with them in the afterlife.
4. A certain number of animals were mummified in order to provide food for eternity.

These ancient tombs are time capsules filled with ancient treasures, many of which we are still deciphering and trying to understand. Some of the tomb findings have been items made of animal products, which were used in many ways. Bone was plentiful and the ancient Egyptians fashioned it into jewelry and arrowheads. Glue was made from animal hide and from sinews. Feathers were used as ornaments. Twisted animal gut and sinews were used in the making of stringed instruments. Ivory usually came from Nile hippos and were used for carving combs and jewelry.

Egyptian burials often included sculpted clay and carved wooden figures, tools, and utensils in hopes they would service the dead in the afterlife. These were often part of a larger diorama or miniature three-dimensional scene. Because so many of these elaborate models have been found in the tombs of the royal families, we've learned a great deal about the customs of these people. For example, there are miniature models of butcher shops, scenes of counting and inspecting cattle, and scenes of plowing the fields. There are wonderfully detailed wall paintings and reliefs decorating the tombs, giving us further information about daily life in Ancient Egypt. It is interesting to note that much of this remained hidden for 4,000 to 5,000 years.

As Robert Fulford has written, "...Because the tombs were hidden so well, many of them remained intact until about 200 years ago, when the modern world began discovering them and prying them open, one after another, in wonderment and excitement and gratitude. And so our own civilization, through the collaboration of grave-robbers, scholars and art lovers, has come to know far more about Egypt than would otherwise be possible". [2]

_____ [A] http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/EGYPT/animals.html [B] http://members.tripod.com/~ib205/apis_2.html [C] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians

[1] Giza Digital Library: Giza Bibliography of George A. Reisner (1867-1942) Reisner, George A. "The Dog Which was Honored by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt." Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 34, No. 206 (December 1936), pp. 96-99.

[2] "Eternal optimists: The Royal Ontario Museum's exhibition of Egyptian art reminds us of a civilization that believed you can take it with you" The National Post Toronto, Canada 2 March 2004

Copyright 2006 Melanie Light


About The Author

Melanie Light is an artist, art historian and educator. She is site owner of Pet Lovers Art & Resources at http://www.artzpet.com and Petz Classic Dog Art at http://www.cafepress.com/petz . Her portfolio site can be found here: http://mlightart.com. You will find more artwork, gifts, and information on these sites.

Overview of Egypt for Travelers

From Pyramids to the Valley of the Kings, the Arab Republic of Egypt oozes history. If you are considering traveling to Egypt, you should know the following about the country.

Overview of Egypt for Travelers

Egypt has plenty of land, but much of it is sparsely inhabited. This leads to a situation where the vast majority lives within relatively compact urban places. As the most populous Arab nation, nearly all of people live along the Nile River, particularly in Cairo and Alexandria. Cairo in particular is one of the world’s most densely populated cities with a whopping 3,800 people per square mile and roughly 18 million in the extended city. Traffic jams are legendary to say the least.

Travelers to Egypt are almost always going to see the pyramids and various archeological remains of the Pharaohs. Just so you can sound like you know what you are talking about, here is a very brief history on the rule of the Pharaohs.

Around 3,100 BC, Mena united Egypt and became the first Pharaoh. 30 dynasties would follow and are categorized as the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Empire. In 525 BC, the last Pharaoh was overthrown by the invading Persians. The pyramids of Giza were built during the fourth dynasty. The Great Pyramid is the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu. The Valley of Kings you will visit is only partially an accurate representation. More than a few of the sites were actually moved to higher elevations to save them from flooding caused when the Nasser Dam went into operation.

As for modern times, Egypt covers an area of roughly 386,000 square miles. The capital is Cairo with a population between 16 and 18 million people. The climate is universally dry and hot. Life is sustained almost totally by the Nile.

The people of Egypt are known as “Egyptians.” The total population is over 77 million and growing at a rate of 1.78 percent per year. 94 percent claim to be Muslim. Arabic is the official language although English and French are also spoken. 57 percent of the people are literate and life expectancy is 71 years of age.

As this overview shows, the country is unique in that it is almost totally reliant upon the Nile River. Without the Nile, Egypt would be bereft of its heritage and modern state. Fortunately, it has learned to ride herd on the longest river in the world.

About The Author


Richard Monk is with http://www.factsmonk.com - a site with facts about everything. Visit http://www.factsmonk.com/country_facts to read more about country facts.

Overview of Egypt for Travelers

From Pyramids to the Valley of the Kings, the Arab Republic of Egypt oozes history. If you are considering traveling to Egypt, you should know the following about the country.

Overview of Egypt for Travelers

Egypt has plenty of land, but much of it is sparsely inhabited. This leads to a situation where the vast majority lives within relatively compact urban places. As the most populous Arab nation, nearly all of people live along the Nile River, particularly in Cairo and Alexandria. Cairo in particular is one of the world’s most densely populated cities with a whopping 3,800 people per square mile and roughly 18 million in the extended city. Traffic jams are legendary to say the least.

Travelers to Egypt are almost always going to see the pyramids and various archeological remains of the Pharaohs. Just so you can sound like you know what you are talking about, here is a very brief history on the rule of the Pharaohs.

Around 3,100 BC, Mena united Egypt and became the first Pharaoh. 30 dynasties would follow and are categorized as the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Empire. In 525 BC, the last Pharaoh was overthrown by the invading Persians. The pyramids of Giza were built during the fourth dynasty. The Great Pyramid is the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu. The Valley of Kings you will visit is only partially an accurate representation. More than a few of the sites were actually moved to higher elevations to save them from flooding caused when the Nasser Dam went into operation.

As for modern times, Egypt covers an area of roughly 386,000 square miles. The capital is Cairo with a population between 16 and 18 million people. The climate is universally dry and hot. Life is sustained almost totally by the Nile.

The people of Egypt are known as “Egyptians.” The total population is over 77 million and growing at a rate of 1.78 percent per year. 94 percent claim to be Muslim. Arabic is the official language although English and French are also spoken. 57 percent of the people are literate and life expectancy is 71 years of age.

As this overview shows, the country is unique in that it is almost totally reliant upon the Nile River. Without the Nile, Egypt would be bereft of its heritage and modern state. Fortunately, it has learned to ride herd on the longest river in the world.

About The Author


Richard Monk is with http://www.factsmonk.com - a site with facts about everything. Visit http://www.factsmonk.com/country_facts to read more about country facts.

Traveling Around Egypt And Back

Egypt is one of the most thrilling places, mainly because of its Pyramids. Egypt is also one of the vacationing spots for the people living in the west and also people living in other parts of the world. This is the perfect trip for a family who wants to add an educational value to their vacation. Unlike most vacation spots, parents drop their children of at an amusement park for hours at a time. A trip to Egypt is a trip that the entire family can enjoy

A grand tour for Egypt starts from Cairo (Ancient Egypt), which includes religious and Islamic sight seeing. Cairo is also one of the major airports in Egypt. Normal tour for Cairo will start from Giza pyramids (Great pyramids), Saqquara (Step pyramid) and even the Egyptian Antiquities museum. This is like a first day tour.

Then the tour usually moves on to Luxor and Aswan, these places are visited either by train or flight. Tours also include visiting some places like Citadel and Khan el-Khalili market in Islamic Cairo, also visiting the churches and Coptic museum in Cairo.

Egypt is a place for Religious tours, Adventure and Specialty tours, golfing tours, fishing expeditions, Birding tours, Nature tours, Simple Holidays, Beach vacations, Scuba diving vacations, Western or Eastern Desert, The Sinai, Jordan, Kenya and the Israel.

Shopping is unlimited in Egypt being a historical and a religious place, one can find many exciting and inventive things to buy.

Food is delicious in Egypt, some of the famous delicacies of Egypt are, Egyptian bean salad, Egyptian stuffed egg plant with rice, meat and okra stew, Egyptian stuffed pigeon, Egyptian green soup, Egyptian salty rice, stuffed grape leaves, fig cakes, um ali (famous dessert of Egypt), Egyptian spiced drink etc… All the dishes of Egypt are made in a unique way; there are recipe books available for people who become lover of the food in Egypt.

Arabic is a common language that is spoken in Egypt. It is not very hard to learn basic Arabic so communication is made between people who do not understand English.

There are various transports that are available in Egypt, getting to places isn’t difficult because of the arrangement of buses, trains, water transport and flights. It is quiet reasonable to travel in Egypt.

Proper planning is recommended so that one would not get confused if going to Egypt the first time. Maps are available so detailed study of Egypt will help in the entire trip.


About The Author

Cathy Peterson writes about http://www.traveldealsdiscounts.com ,http://www.traveldealsdiscounts.com/discount-travel-deals/Site59.com and http://www.traveldealsdiscounts.com/discount-travel-deals/Hotels.com.

Ancient Egyptian Art -- Timeless and Beautiful Today

Ancient Egyptian Art is one of the most recognized, admired and collected art in the history of the world. From delicate gold jewelry to vivid paintings to massive statues dozens of feet tall, for over 5,000 years Egyptian art has fascinated, delighted and awed generation after generation with its beauty, style and mystery. While genuine ancient pieces of art are rare and extremely valuable, modern Egyptian artists make beautiful art and jewelry that is inspired by some of the greatest recovered works from ancient sites, and which adheres strictly to the styles used by ancient artists. Jewelry in gold and silver with inlaid stones are fashioned after pieces of jewelry recovered from ancient tombs. Papyrus Paintings are painted in vivid color on genuine papyrus, made using the same principles developed thousands of years ago on the banks of the Nile, where the papyrus plant grows to this day. Paintings are executed in the style of frontalism, one of the most striking characteristics of ancient Egypt.

Frontalism

Frontalism is the style in which every known piece of ancient Egyptian art was produced. In paintings, the style of frontalism means that the head of the character is drawn in profile, while the body is drawn from a front view. However, even though the face is in profile, the eye is drawn in full, as it would be seen from the front. The legs always face the same direction as the head, with one foot forward and one back.

Ancient Egyptian figures, especially of gods and pharaohs, are noticeable for their very formal, even rigid stance and posture, but their faces are always serene, regardless of the scene in which they are depicted. There were very strict rules about how a god or pharaoh could be represented, which even included a prohibition against anything being drawn in front of the face or body of the pharaoh, even when the scene depicted clearly required it for any kind of realism. Realism was simply not a goal of ancient Egyptian Art. It is these very formal and stylized rules that have made Egyptian Art one of the most widely recognized forms of art in the world. Over thousands of years Egyptian artists adhered to this one style, which is quite remarkable, especially as compared to the extreme differences in art expression that have occurred in the modern world in just the past 100 years or so. The only acknowledged variations are in the portrayals of animals and common people as compared to the more formal depictions of pharaohs and gods. As can be seen in many Egyptian paintings, animals and common people or slaves are represented in a more natural manner, though still within very strict and formulaic rules.

This frontalist style is the primary reason why ancient Egyptian art is so easily recognizable, and its appeal has lasted through many centuries to this day.


About The Author

Ann M. Hession is the founder of http://www.egyptianartisans.com. A graduate of Harvard University, Ms. Hession has been fascinated by ancient Egyptian art and culture since high school. Egyptian Artisans is dedicated to sharing the beauty and mystery of ancient Egypt through making available fine Egyptian art and jewelry.

The Customs of Egypt: What To Expect

If you’re traveling in Egypt, you’re in for a treat. Egypt is a country steeped in ancient history and fascinating culture. With their intriguing archaeological riches, gorgeous and long-standing artistic traditions, and friendly, hospitable customs, Egypt is truly a wonderful place to visit. If you’re planning a trip to Egypt soon, here’s what to expect from its culture and people.

Religion is everywhere. In Egypt, Muslim is the dominant religion—although there are many Christians, especially Coptic Christians, as well. But religion and particularly Muslim tradition dominates the culture. Expect most businesses to close on Fridays, except for Christian-owned companies, which will close on Sundays. In addition, devout Muslims are called to prayer five times a day. If you are visiting a home or business during this time, don’t be surprised if your visit stops while the prayer is conducted.

Alcohol: when in doubt, ask. The Muslim religion restricts its members from drinking alcohol. However, most Egyptians won’t mind if you drink, as long as it’s not overdone. If you have any doubt as to whether it’s appropriate to drink alcohol in some social situations, ask. You are allowed to bring up to one litre of alcohol with you through customs, and you can buy alcohol at duty-free shops and liquor stores in Egypt. You may have trouble ordering beer or wine in a Muslim-owned restaurant, however.

Crime in Egypt: it’s rare, but be prudent. Egyptian culture puts a lot of emphasis on extended family. Each person in a family is responsible for the good reputation of others in that family, and a bad deed done by one member can shame an entire family. Crime in Egypt is quite rare as a result—and many travelers will tell you that the streets of Cairo are much safer than those in Western cities.

However, it’s important to take the usual precautions—avoid walking alone through deserted areas you’re not familiar with, keep your passport and traveler’s cheques protected, and so on. In touristy areas, be wary of pickpockets.

For women: not as restricted as you’d think. Although Egypt is technically a conservative Muslim society, many visitors are surprised by the numbers of Egyptian women they see in professional occupations. Egyptian women work in business, government, law, medicine, higher education, and many other professions. Some may wear veils and head coverings, but many do not.

Foreign women are not generally restricted in Egypt. However, the cultural dress code in Egypt is much more conservative than it is in the West, for both men and women. Even though it’s hot, female visitors are usually encouraged to wear loose-fitting clothing, long skirts or pants, and shirts that cover the shoulders—no tank tops—in order to avoid unwanted attention from men.

Women visiting Egypt may encounter some segregation during their travels. Buses, for example, usually seat women in the front and men in the back. Trains often have a first car reserved for women as well.

Crime is rare in Egypt, but women must be more careful than men—especially when traveling alone in rural areas. Most of the time, women alone are perfectly safe in Egypt. But as in all areas of the world, practical precautions should be taken.

For men: don’t let casual intimacy surprise you. Egyptian men kiss other men on the cheek. Many Western men are disconcerted by this, but it is a customary friendly greeting in Egypt. In general, Egyptians are “close talkers” and don’t require a lot of personal space when interacting with others.

Men visiting Egypt must be especially careful when interacting with Egyptian women. In traditional families, it’s considered unseemly for men and women who are not related to speak. Even in professional situations, it may be considered forward to make eye contact with women. If you are asking about an Egyptian person’s family, avoid asking in too much detail about female relatives. You may be trying to make friendly conversation, but a conservative Egyptian may interpret your questions as inappropriate interest.

Baksheesh: don’t tip professionals. It’s considered highly inappropriate to tip professionals. Unlike in Western countries, tipping in restaurants is generally not expected—although it is appreciated. If you take a taxi, don’t tip. You will usually have to negotiate your fare, and the taxi driver will incorporate the tip into the price for the ride.

Some will perform a simple service for you and ask for “baksheesh” in return—especially in tourist-populated areas. Be aware that you do not have to tip in every situation, and it is not always considered a required part of social etiquette in Egypt.

Egypt is a land rich in cultural tradition, art and architecture, ancient history, and modern hospitality. Its cultural traditions can be difficult for some travelers to understand, but do your best to accommodate local custom. Be flexible and open-minded, and you’re sure to have a good time.



About The Author

Darren Panto works for Peltours Limited based in London UK. For a wide range of Egyptian holidays and cruises visit http://www.peltours.com/

The Fascination with Ancient Egypt Continues...and Offers Unique Gift Ideas

The mystery and intrigue of ancient lands never ceases to amaze the curious with tales of King Tut, regal queens, the Great Pyramids, pioneering pharaohs, and the allure of gods, such as Anubis and Isis. This is the world of ancient Egypt and its popularity only continues to grow, as lines gather to take a peek at the King Tut Exhibition in London and wide-eyed children imagine what a real mummy looks like. As the holidays draw near, there are plenty of sweaters, ties, and bathrobes to consider, but only a few presents can provide a unique conversation piece like Egyptian replicas and related gifts.

Consider the Egyptian King's Throne (7.5" X 5.75") – hand painted with shades of gold and sky blue – highlighting clever animal detailing decorating the legs. The Egyptian Ceremonial Throne offers intricate decoration with vibrant shades of gold, black, and orange. To offer the presence of the "Boy King" into the home of a relative or friend, imagine the regality of the Large Egyptian Coffin of King Tut (measuring 16"), representing the infamous king who took to the throne at the age of 11.

While you may not own the glittering treasures of ancient Egyptian pharaohs, you can still hide away jewelry and any other keepsakes in a variety of elaborately decorated Egyptian vessels and boxes, which make perfect gifts for the holidays. The uniqueness of each piece transports you into the center of one of the most intriguing ancient cultures in history. The Eye of Horus vase is rather attractive, while the Egyptian Pharaoh selection is cleverly constructed. The Egyptian Round vase offers an explosion of blues and reds, while the Egyptian Cobra vase uses two snakes for handles. An Anubis-inspired flowerpot and Egyptian Scarab jewelry box also make great gifts for the holidays.

In the morning, imagine gazing into one of the three different kinds of mirrors offered at Home Furnishing Boutique, such as: the hand painted Egyptian Round Wall Mirror with images of fish; the Cobra Mirror (which stands upright on a tabletop base); and the highly decorative hand mirrors with ornamental handles and hand-painted exterior scenes that display King Tut's sarcophagus, Egyptian goddesses (such as Hathor), or other features of the Egyptian culture.

Pens and Letter Openers

To please the executive who needs a little flair added to his or her office, consider one of the eye-catching pens and/or letter openers with an Egyptian theme. You may choose from Anubis, King Tut, and Bastet (an appealing cat-like display) for pens that come in a pack of six. Letter openers display the same characters with the option of Nefertiti.

Decorating the Home – Egyptian Style

On the home front, elaborate clocks and coaster sets can breathe life into a drab coffee table. Add spice by presenting loved ones with an Egyptian Anubis Clock or a coaster set depicting King Tut, Maat, or a scarab. Perhaps, an ashtray will do, as there are a handful of selections to ponder, including items shaped like a pyramid or Egyptian scarab. Another option puts a pharaoh's face on display, while the Anubis Ashtray showcases the ancient god of the dead with the jackal head.

Candle lovers will find delight in the exotic themes of holders that exhibit an alluring kneeling Anubis, Egyptian cat, the regal King Taharga, or the elegant wingspan of the Princess Cleopatra Candleholder. Medium-sized statues may also decorate shelves and end tables, as a host of selections are available for the choosing. Ibis-Headed Thoth highlights the god with the bird-like head who is associated with magic, writing, and science. Serket is a vision of gold – the protector of poisons and snakebites. The winged display of Maat represents the law, morality, and justice.

There are also statues that present 8" obelisks in sand and dark brown colors; a large Egyptian sphinx; an Egyptian girl on a boat; and Isis with open wings. Other statues depict various gods and goddesses, including Ptah (god of craftsmen), Khons (watches over night travelers), and Hathor (the personification of the Milky Way).

As for placing a creative piece of furniture into the home of loved ones, an array of items encourages a unique and fascinating transformation of décor. Treat your father or grandfather like the king he is by delivering a life –size Egyptian King's Throne with exquisite detail. The Princess Sitamun Ceremony Throne is rather attractive with its black and gold color scheme. Tables also make great holiday gifts, as one may choose from a striking tea table, colorful Pharaoh Bar, and an assortment of glass-top selections, including sarcophagus and King Tut imagery. Among all these wonderful gift ideas, you will surely find one for everyone on your list.

About The Author

Brian Banks

HomeFurnishingBoutique.com offers all the above Egyptian Décor (http://www.homefurnishingboutique.com/egyptian-accents.html) gifts and many more unusual Home and Garden Accents and Gifts. Check our New Arrivals and Your Price discounts. Secure Ordering, Satisfaction and Quality guaranteed.

Top Ten Places To Visit In Egypt

There’s no other place in the world that holds more mystery than the country of Egypt. The smell of the mysticism of the ancient Egyptians still lingers over the place. This ancient atmosphere seems to fill its every nook and cranny with secrets yet untold.

1.) Pyramids of Giza

And perhaps there is nothing more mysterious, and more worthy of seeing in Egypt than the esteemed Great Pyramids of Giza. These are the pyramids of Khufu, Kafhre, and Menkaura. These perfectly shaped structures leaves everyone in awe and in wonder about how exactly they were made, considering that the ancient Egyptians had no advanced technology to work with.

2.) Sphinx

And of course, if you’re going to go to the Great Pyramids, then you might as well go to the Sphinx. This is one of the most mysterious structures in Egypt. Even now, archeologists are still arguing about its origin and its purpose, making it the subject of the famous phrase, “the Riddle of the Sphinx.”

3.) Abu Simbel

These two temples were built by Pharaoh Ramesses II to commemorate himself and his wife, Nefertari. It’s a breathtaking place, and its temples are hailed as one of the most beautiful in Egypt. What’s even more interesting about the Abu Simbel is the amount of effort put into relocating and preserving it.

4.) Cairo

And of course, if you really want to immerse yourself in Egyptian culture, it would be best for you to go to the capital city, Cairo. The place is teeming with bazaars and restaurants where you can buy your taste of Egyptian culture. It’s surely not a place to miss.

5.) Temples of Karnak

What better way to experience ancient Egypt than to visit the very place where they worshipped their gods. The Temples of Karnak is the biggest site for Egyptian worship. It has a monument to just about every god in the Theban religion.

6.) The Nile River

And of course, you can’t miss out on the famous Nile River. It is, after all, what nourished Egypt and turned it into the place of wonder that it is. In fact, what’s great about visiting the Nile is that you can take a Felucca and sail down the legendary river, taking in the sights of the city and the sunset.

7.) Valley of the Kings

The Valley of the Kings or Biban El Moluk is the place where Egypt’s most esteemed pharaohs were buried. This place is teeming with mummies and undiscovered treasures. In fact, this is the place where archeologists found one of the most famous mummies of all time – Tutankhamun.

8.) Egyptian Museum

Of course, since it would be unwise to leave the Egyptian treasures in the tombs they were found in, the archeologists put them in the Egyptian museum where they would be put under high security. If you want to learn about Egypt, this is the best place to start. There’s no other place with a higher concentration of Egyptian artifacts, and you can even follow the tour so that you can be oriented with the history of each of the artifacts.

9.) Siwa Oasis

Egypt isn’t all about temples and pyramids, there’s a place where you can just let loose and have fun – the Siwa Oasis. Here, you can take a swim in the cool waters to ward off the desert heat. It is rumored that Alexander stopped here during his great conquest.

10.) Necropolis of Sakkarah

And indeed, you can’t miss something as intriguing as a ‘Necropolis’ or, if translated, a City of the Dead. Here, you will find the less popular pyramids of Egypt, the step pyramids. However, though they are less popular than the great pyramids, they’re still suffused with great history and culture.
About The Author
Jonathan Williams is the travel writer for Destination Guide TV - the place to share travel videos. Visit http://www.destinationguide.tv/egypt to view or share Egypt travel videos.

The Meaning Behind The Ankh

The Ankh (aka the crux aitsata, or the 'ansate' or 'handled cross') was sacred to the ancient Egyptians (this is actually the land of Ancient Kemet - "the land of the blacks" - which the Greeks later renamed Egypt) and is known as the original cross. This symbol stands for life or living, and forms part of the Egyptian words such as 'health' and 'happiness.' (This is why it's often referred to as the Key of Life which would unlock the gates of death, aka the cross of life.) It is linked with the Egyptian God Osiris and the Goddess Isis (the eternal mother and High Priestess who carries the Ankh in Her hand). Kings and Pharoahs are also oftentimes shown with an Ankh to distinguish them from "mere mortals." The loop of the Ankh (which represents the womb, the feminine discipline) is considered to be the feminine, and the "T" shape is considered to be the masculine (the masculine discipline or the Penis). Together, these symbols create life and reflect a continued existence. It is sometimes called the Key of the Nile (the river that provided water for Egypt to survive - the Ankh is often associated with water, air, and the sun rising over the horizon) which further reinforces the image of fertility and reproduction. Of course, the Ankh can be further taken to symbolize the power to give and sustain life. With its deep Egyptian roots, it is no wonder that it is widely used within the Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt.

Today the Ankh is usually worn as an amulet (a protector, or something which is considered to bring good luck to the wearer - coming from the Latin word 'amuletum' which is defined as a 'means of defence') to extend the life of the living here on Earth. It is believed that the Ankh will bestow immortality on anyone who possesses it. It is believed that life energy emanating from the Ankh can be absorbed by anyone within a certain proximity. An Ankh serves as an antenna or conduit for the divine power of life that permeates the universe. The amulet also provides the wearer with protection from the evil forces of decay and degeneration. Many people are also buried with the Ankh in order to ensure their 'life to come' in the afterworld.

About The Author
Reverend Brenda Hoffman, is ordained by the Unitarian Life Church, and has been delivering holistic health and wellness advice for over 7 years since receiving a BA in psychology. As a home-based professional and mother of 1, she operates a holistic wellness network. She invites you over to http://www.yourhealthyfamilyhome.com/ to learn how to improve you and your family's health.

The Role of Animals of Ancient Egypt

To the ancient Egyptians, animals were created by the gods and given rights equal to that of mankind. They saw animals not as their subjects, but rather as independent beings, and treated them with respect. [A]

The Nile served as a source of food and was the most important factor to the agriculture of the region. Fish were plentiful and could be eaten roasted, boiled, salted, preserved, or simply dried in the sun. Because the Nile would flood annually, it revitalized the land with water and fertile silt, enriching the soil to grow wheat, fruits, and vegetables. Additionally, it provided thick grasses on which animals would graze.

The people of ancient Egypt were mainly pescarian, meaning they would often eat fish. The Nile supplied many types of fish, including: catfish, mullet, tilapia, sturgeon, eel, carp, and perch, which were all an important source of nourishment. Along the Nile, there were restrictions on the types of fish that could be eaten because of their connections with the gods. The Pharaoh and other priests would abstain from eating fish altogether because it was forbidden by one of their deities as a food reserved for peasants.

Bread was their main staple, made from wheat and barley. From time to time, they supplemented their diet with antelope, which they hunted. Occasionally they ate pork and goat, which were raised on farms.

The Egyptians also raised sheep, cattle, geese and ducks. These animals not only provided them with food, drink, leather and skins, but also helped with their daily lives. Oxen and cattle were used for plowing the fields, and other animals were used for trampling seeds into the soil, and eating unwanted grain.

Birds were of extreme importance to the ancient Egyptians as well. Along the Nile, the bird-life included the falcon, kite, goose, crane, heron, pigeon, ibis, vulture and owl. Numerous birds were actually kept in sacred flocks and some were elevated in status to become temple animals. From the vast collection of ancient Egyptian artwork, evidence exists of several species of birds that are now extinct.

Beekeeping began in Egypt around 2500 BC in the Fifth Dynasty. Egyptians loved honey and they would take great pains to cultivate it. They not only kept bees, but they also actively went out and searched for the honey of wild bees. They would use bee wax for embalming, offerings to the gods, medicines, makeup, and as a bonding agent. They named the honeybee after the bull-like god named Apis because they believed it had similar characteristics. (The historian Herodotus described this bull as being black, with a white diamond on its forehead and two white hairs on its tail.)

Horses were introduced much later into Egyptian society – around 1500 BC. They were a status symbol for the owners and were mainly used to carry chariots into battle and for ceremonial occasions. Horses were rarely ridden and if so, only by royalty. They were well cared for and given individual names. Donkeys were the main beasts of burden. They were used as pack animals and for carrying heavy bundles of grain from the field to the threshing floor. Female donkeys, which produced higher-protein and sweeter milk than cows, were kept as dairy animals.

Hunting was seen as a symbol of mastery over animal forces. Egyptians believed it was their role to conquer the land. Dogs, resembling greyhounds, would help them while hunting. There is evidence from the tomb paintings that the ancient Egyptians sometimes took along cheetahs they had tamed.

The hunters knew their animals well. They studied their characteristics, including their diet and mating habits. This knowledge brought about a great respect for the animals and aided them in the hunt. Oftentimes, they would hunt great cats, which were not always killed. [C] Smaller jungle mammals and wild cats, such as the cheetah, were often kept as family pets. Ramses the Great is said to have had a pet lion.

Dog, cats, monkeys, and birds were also a part of the nuclear family. So devoted were these ancient people to their pets, that upon the pet's passing, they would often carry out the same rites and rituals as they would for any other family member. Pets and sacred animals were mummified and put in special cemeteries. Animals that belonged to the Pharaoh's royal family were mummified and buried with them so they could continue in the afterlife together. The following inscription for a well-loved dog was found in a tomb dating from the 5th or 6th dynasty:

"The dog which was the guard of His Majesty. Abuwtiyuw is his name. His Majesty ordered that he be buried, that he be given a coffin from the royal treasury, fine linen in great quantity, incense. His Majesty gave perfumed ointment and [ordered] that a tomb be built for him by the gang of masons. His Majesty did this for him in order that he might be honored". [1]

For many years, animal mummies have been overlooked while research went on regarding human mummies and other treasures found in the tombs. The study of this previously neglected area of Egyptology has finally changed, thanks to the work of Dr. Salima Ikram, one of the leading experts in Egyptian funerary archaeology. Dr. Ikram is the founder and co-director of the Animal Mummy Project at the Cairo Museum. This project has shed new light on the past, revealing the techniques of mummification and the reasons for it. Regarding the latter, Dr. Ikram tells us four reasons why animals were mummified.

1. They were mummified because they were sacred.
2. They were mummified to please the animal deities (i.e. as offerings to the gods).
3. The ancient Egyptians believed that the afterlife included animals. Therefore, they wanted their pets to continue with them in the afterlife.
4. A certain number of animals were mummified in order to provide food for eternity.

These ancient tombs are time capsules filled with ancient treasures, many of which we are still deciphering and trying to understand. Some of the tomb findings have been items made of animal products, which were used in many ways. Bone was plentiful and the ancient Egyptians fashioned it into jewelry and arrowheads. Glue was made from animal hide and from sinews. Feathers were used as ornaments. Twisted animal gut and sinews were used in the making of stringed instruments. Ivory usually came from Nile hippos and were used for carving combs and jewelry.

Egyptian burials often included sculpted clay and carved wooden figures, tools, and utensils in hopes they would service the dead in the afterlife. These were often part of a larger diorama or miniature three-dimensional scene. Because so many of these elaborate models have been found in the tombs of the royal families, we've learned a great deal about the customs of these people. For example, there are miniature models of butcher shops, scenes of counting and inspecting cattle, and scenes of plowing the fields. There are wonderfully detailed wall paintings and reliefs decorating the tombs, giving us further information about daily life in Ancient Egypt. It is interesting to note that much of this remained hidden for 4,000 to 5,000 years.

As Robert Fulford has written, "...Because the tombs were hidden so well, many of them remained intact until about 200 years ago, when the modern world began discovering them and prying them open, one after another, in wonderment and excitement and gratitude. And so our own civilization, through the collaboration of grave-robbers, scholars and art lovers, has come to know far more about Egypt than would otherwise be possible". [2]

_____ [A] http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/EGYPT/animals.html [B] http://members.tripod.com/~ib205/apis_2.html [C] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians

[1] Giza Digital Library: Giza Bibliography of George A. Reisner (1867-1942) Reisner, George A. "The Dog Which was Honored by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt." Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 34, No. 206 (December 1936), pp. 96-99.

[2] "Eternal optimists: The Royal Ontario Museum's exhibition of Egyptian art reminds us of a civilization that believed you can take it with you" The National Post Toronto, Canada 2 March 2004

About The Author
Melanie Light is an artist, art historian and educator. She is site owner of Pet Lovers Art & Resources at http://www.artzpet.com and Petz Classic Dog Art at http://www.cafepress.com/petz . Her portfolio site can be found here: http://mlightart.com. You will find more artwork, gifts, and information on these sites.

The Red Sea in Egypt for Scuba Diving

For many Europeans, traveling to the Red Sea for scuba diving is like many North Americans going to the Caribbean. For a scuba diver based in North America or anywhere else outside of Europe or Africa, a journey to the Red Sea is considered one of the more exotic scuba diving trips. Like other overseas travel, getting to the final destination is the hardest thing. The Red Sea can be dived from ports in both Egypt and Israel but most international scuba divers do so from the Egyptian side. There are two major scuba diving areas in Egypt, Sharm El Sheikh and Hurghada. Sharm El Sheikh at the northern part of the Red Sea is the more established center having been a popular vacation resort area as both Egyptians and Europeans have been vacationing here for many years. The local scuba dive industry grew along with the overall steady growth of classy resorts, shops and other tourist services in Sharm El Sheikh. Hurghada, once just a sleepy fishing village along the west side of the Red Sea, is starting to grow as scuba divers discover this alternative to Sharm El Sheikh.

More than likely, travelers going to either Sharm El Sheikh or Hurghada will have to fly to Cairo before connecting with Egypt Air or taking a bus to their final destination. Many scuba divers turn their Red Sea diving trip into a major extended holiday in order to both dive and see the many wonderful ancient Egyptian sites such as the pyramids. There are many things to see and do in Egypt in addition to the ancient ruins including museums, markets and Nile river cruises. So it is highly recommended to do some research and plan accordingly for any trip to Egypt as one would not want to run into the situation where not enough time was allocated to see everything one wants to see there in addition to scuba diving.

Many of the scuba operators in Sharm El Sheikh are affiliated or close by to a hotel resort. Most of the dive shops are actually owned and staffed by Europeans working in Egypt. This is similar to the situation in the Caribbean where many of the scuba operators there are American owned. The Red Sea has a higher salt content than Caribbean waters so it is recommended to add 4 to 5 more pounds to the amount of weight divers usually use. Like most European diving, the scuba community here in Egypt uses the metric system so weights will be in kilos while air pressure will be in bars. Most dive computers should be able to display both metric and imperial systems.
Many scuba operators in Sharm El Sheikh use a very interesting system for scuba tanks. Rather than using their own tanks, their dive boats go to a common central barge anchored in the harbor. This is where all the scuba tanks are supplied from and the dive boats collect the number of tanks they need for day’s dive trips. At the end of the trips, used tanks are dropped off at the same barge before heading back to port.
The majority of the dives in the Red Sea are semi drift dives where the dive boats drop off divers at the dive sites and then pick them up afterwards. One very different aspect of the Red Sea compared to other dive destinations in the world is that the coral reefs here can extend up to very shallow depths. As a result, the standard safety stops at 15 feet are done drifting among many of these sloping reefs along with the accompanying marine life. Therefore, these are some of the most scenic safety stops scuba divers will ever do. This is certainly different from the usual bland safety stop in the Caribbean. One thing to note is that the maximum allowable depth for recreational scuba divers in Egypt is 30 meters which is about 90 feet.
As expected, the marine life in the Red Sea is spectacular. There are many species of fish, crustaceans and marine plant life here that are not found in the Caribbean. In fact, many of them are indigenous to the Red Sea only. While lionfish can be extremely rare sightings elsewhere, they are quite abundant in the Red Sea which is a real treat for scuba divers. It is also not unusual to jump in the water to be among a large school of tuna or other fish. Many night divers will see coral reefs here to be more spectacular than in the Caribbean.

For many scuba divers, the Red Sea is one of those ‘must dive at least once in a lifetime’ destinations. It is a very unique place to dive especially with the desert background visible from the dive boats. The excellent diving with the many awesome sights of Egypt make the Red Sea a dream dive trip for any scuba diver.

About The Author
Clint Leung is a NAUI certified Master and Rescue Scuba Diver. He is also owner of Free Spirit Activewear (www.FreeSpiritActivewear.com) , an online retailer/designer specializing in premium quality scuba diving activewear. Free Spirit Activewear has numerous information resource articles on scuba diving as well as free eCards.

Traveling Around Egypt And Back

Egypt is one of the most thrilling places, mainly because of its Pyramids. Egypt is also one of the vacationing spots for the people living in the west and also people living in other parts of the world. This is the perfect trip for a family who wants to add an educational value to their vacation. Unlike most vacation spots, parents drop their children of at an amusement park for hours at a time. A trip to Egypt is a trip that the entire family can enjoy

A grand tour for Egypt starts from Cairo (Ancient Egypt), which includes religious and Islamic sight seeing. Cairo is also one of the major airports in Egypt. Normal tour for Cairo will start from Giza pyramids (Great pyramids), Saqquara (Step pyramid) and even the Egyptian Antiquities museum. This is like a first day tour.

Then the tour usually moves on to Luxor and Aswan, these places are visited either by train or flight. Tours also include visiting some places like Citadel and Khan el-Khalili market in Islamic Cairo, also visiting the churches and Coptic museum in Cairo.

Egypt is a place for Religious tours, Adventure and Specialty tours, golfing tours, fishing expeditions, Birding tours, Nature tours, Simple Holidays, Beach vacations, Scuba diving vacations, Western or Eastern Desert, The Sinai, Jordan, Kenya and the Israel.

Shopping is unlimited in Egypt being a historical and a religious place, one can find many exciting and inventive things to buy.

Food is delicious in Egypt, some of the famous delicacies of Egypt are, Egyptian bean salad, Egyptian stuffed egg plant with rice, meat and okra stew, Egyptian stuffed pigeon, Egyptian green soup, Egyptian salty rice, stuffed grape leaves, fig cakes, um ali (famous dessert of Egypt), Egyptian spiced drink etc… All the dishes of Egypt are made in a unique way; there are recipe books available for people who become lover of the food in Egypt.

Arabic is a common language that is spoken in Egypt. It is not very hard to learn basic Arabic so communication is made between people who do not understand English.

There are various transports that are available in Egypt, getting to places isn’t difficult because of the arrangement of buses, trains, water transport and flights. It is quiet reasonable to travel in Egypt.

Proper planning is recommended so that one would not get confused if going to Egypt the first time. Maps are available so detailed study of Egypt will help in the entire trip.


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Obama Aides Tamp Down Expectations

By ADAM NAGOURNEY and JIM RUTENBERG
Published: November 5, 2008
President-elect Barack Obama has begun an effort to tamp down what his aides fear are unusually high expectations among his supporters, and will remind Americans regularly throughout the transition that the nation’s challenges are substantial and will take time to address.
Mr. Obama’s advisers said they were startled, if gratified, by the jubilation that greeted the news of Mr. Obama’s victory in much of the United States and abroad. But while the energy of his supporters could be a tremendous political asset as Mr. Obama works to enact his agenda after taking office in January, his aides said they were looking to temper hopes that he would be able to solve the nation’s problems or fully reverse Bush administration policies quickly and easily, especially given the prospect of a deep and long-lasting recession.
“We have talked about this,” said Robert Gibbs, a senior adviser to Mr. Obama. “It’s important that everybody understands that this is not going to happen overnight. There has to be a realistic expectation of what can happen and how quickly.”
Joel Benenson, Mr. Obama’s campaign pollster, said he thought that the public appreciated the problems that the president-elect was facing and would judge him against that backdrop.
“I don’t think they view him as a miracle worker who in two months is going to solve an economic crisis,” Mr. Benenson said. “It is a matter of being straightforward with people about what we are going to achieve and how fast it’s going to take.”
Mr. Obama will hit that theme at a news conference he is expected to hold over the coming days, and in most of his public appearances from here on out, aides said. They said they would discourage the traditional yardstick for measuring the accomplishments of a new president — the first 100 days. Mr. Obama told an interviewer toward the end of his campaign that it was more appropriate to talk about the first 1,000 days.
Mr. Obama’s advisers said that the tone of his victory speech on Tuesday night — sober and devoid of the arm-pumping that would typically be in an address of that sort — reflected his awareness of these circumstances. Mr. Obama warned that the promises that led Americans to embrace his candidacy — be they as specific as expanding health care or as broad as changing the tone of Washington — might take as long a term to carry out.
The caution reflected the inevitable perils of taking control of the White House at such a difficult time, particularly after a campaign that stirred so much hope among voters. The economic crisis will certainly complicate Mr. Obama’s more ambitious domestic efforts like broadening health care coverage and cutting taxes for most Americans. His call for a change in the tone in Washington would require a sharp shift in history. Even with substantial Democratic majorities in the Senate and the House, passing major legislation could still be time-consuming for Mr. Obama and require compromises.
Mr. Gibbs said one of the main challenges for Mr. Obama was tamping down expectations a bit without making anyone think he was moving away from the promises of his campaign.
“The flip side of this — and I want to make sure this is also clear — we also believe that it is paramount to begin doing everything we said we would do in the campaign,” Mr. Gibbs said. “We know expectations are high. But disappointment if we didn’t try to do the things that we said we were going to do would be far, far greater than anything else. People went to the polls and elected Barack Obama because they believed the fact not only that he could do what he said, but that he would try to do what he said.”
The challenge facing Mr. Obama today is similar to one that faced Bill Clinton in 1992, the last time a president arrived in Washington with anything approaching the level of excitement Mr. Obama’s election set off around the country.
As Election Day approached in 1992, it was apparent from the crowds that Mr. Clinton drew, in their size and their faces, that his supporters expected big things after a campaign in which Mr. Clinton had promised a dramatic revamping in health care coverage and programs for the poor. At the time, a senior adviser who was traveling with him, Paul Begala, warned Mr. Clinton to add some caveats to his speeches, to avoid voter letdown should it take time to accomplish things as president.
“I remember talking about this to him in the closing days of the campaign,” Mr. Begala said. “And he started saying, ‘We didn’t get into this overnight and we’re not going to get out of it overnight.’ ”
“So I remember him talking about it and doing it — and it didn’t have any effect on the citizens,” Mr. Begala said. That was one reason, he said, that Democrats lost control of Congress two years later.
A nearly 500-point drop in the Dow Jones Industrial Average on Wednesday was a reminder that Mr. Obama’s election did not bring the financial crisis to a close, and that the economic downturn could limit his ability to pursue his full agenda right off the bat by demanding an immediate focus on trying to pull the nation out of recession. And, even if Americans are ready to bear with Mr. Obama as he pursues policy proposals, they may not as readily accept the sort of compromise that legislative accomplishment often requires.
With the Democrats holding a solid but not commanding majority in the Senate after the vote on Tuesday, his agenda will probably require some modicum of horse trading for Republican support. Further complicating the picture, Mr. Obama’s winning coalition includes new voters who will be watching him closely but may not have patience for the deliberative give and take that accomplishment in Washington often demands.
“He’s got to lower some expectations, indicate the limits he’s confronting,” said Leon Panetta, a former chief of staff to Mr. Clinton. “He’s got a story to tell about how he’s confronting the worst crisis that any president has faced in modern history, and I think he can make clear that he’s going to try to deal with these problems one at a time.”

Exclusive: Gibbs will be WH press secretary

By 11/6/08 9:40 AM EST
Robert Gibbs, a top aide to Sen. Barack Obama (D-Ill.) on his campaign and in his Senate office, will be named the White House press secretary, a top Democratic official said. Gibbs was usually the senior official on Air Obama, the campaign plane. As communications director of Obama's Senate office, Gibbs was a key strategist in Obama's rapid move to the national stage.
Transition planning is still at an early stage and the job has not been formally offered or accepted, officials said.The announcement is likely to be viewed favorably by reporters because Gibbs has unquestioned authority, access and institutional memory.
Gibbs — a 37-year-old native of Auburn, Ala. — became familiar to viewers during the campaign for his sunny steeliness during frequent appearances on morning shows and A-list cable news programs. From his July promotion announcement: “Robert Gibbs, one of Senator Obama’s longest-serving and closest aides, has been elevated to Senior Strategist for Communications and Message, taking on a broader strategic portfolio for the Fall campaign while continuing to serve as senior communications aide travelling with Senator Obama.”
The "podium job" makes the White House press secretary instantly famous around the world as the face and voice of Washington.